Anatomy of musculoskeletal system

Upper extremity: muscle actions & innervation

Shoulder

• Flexion:
  • Muscles: Anterior deltoid, coracobrachialis, biceps brachii
  • Nerves: Axillary (C5-C6), Musculocutaneous (C5-C7)
• Extension:
  • Muscles: Posterior deltoid, latissimus dorsi, teres major, triceps (long head)
  • Nerves: Axillary (C5-C6), Thoracodorsal (C6-C8), Radial (C6-C8)
• Abduction:
  • Muscles: Supraspinatus, middle deltoid
  • Nerves: Suprascapular (C5-C6), Axillary (C5-C6)
• Adduction:
  • Muscles: Pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major
  • Nerves: Medial/lateral pectoral (C5-T1), Thoracodorsal (C6-C8)
• External rotation:
  • Muscles: Infraspinatus, teres minor
  • Nerves: Suprascapular (C5-C6), Axillary (C5-C6)
• Internal rotation:
  • Muscles: Subscapularis, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi
  • Nerves: Upper/lower subscapular (C5-C7), Medial/lateral pectoral

Elbow

• Flexion:
  • Muscles: Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
  • Nerves: Musculocutaneous (C5-C6), Radial (C5-C6)
• Extension:
  • Muscles: Triceps brachii, anconeus
  • Nerves: Radial (C6-C8)

Forearm

• Supination:
  • Muscles: Biceps brachii, supinator
  • Nerves: Musculocutaneous (C5-C6), Radial (C6-C7)
• Pronation:
  • Muscles: Pronator teres, pronator quadratus
  • Nerves: Median (C6-C7, C7-C8)

Wrist

• Flexion:
  • Muscles: Flexor carpi radialis & ulnaris, palmaris longus
  • Nerves: Median (FCR, PL), Ulnar (FCU)
• Extension:
  • Muscles: Extensor carpi radialis longus/brevis, extensor carpi ulnaris
  • Nerves: Radial (C6-C8)

Hand

• Flexion of fingers (MCP, PIP, DIP):
  • Muscles: Flexor digitorum superficialis/profundus, lumbricals
  • Nerves: Median (lateral hand), Ulnar (medial hand)
• Extension of fingers:
  • Muscles: Extensor digitorum, extensor indicis, extensor digiti minimi
  • Nerves: Radial (posterior interosseous)
• Thumb movements:
  • Flexion/Opposition: Median
  • Extension/Abduction: Radial
  • Adduction: Ulnar (adductor pollicis)

Lower extremity: muscle actions and innervation

Hip

• Flexion:
  • Muscles: Iliopsoas, rectus femoris, sartorius
  • Nerves: Femoral (L2-L4)
• Extension:
  • Muscles: Gluteus maximus, hamstrings
  • Nerves: Inferior gluteal (L5-S2), Sciatic (L5-S2)
• Abduction:
  • Muscles: Gluteus medius & minimus, TFL
  • Nerves: Superior gluteal (L4-S1)
• Adduction:
  • Muscles: Adductors (longus, brevis, magnus), gracilis
  • Nerves: Obturator (L2-L4)
• Internal rotation:
  • Muscles: Gluteus medius/minimus (anterior fibers), TFL
  • Nerves: Superior gluteal (L4-S1)
• External rotation:
  • Muscles: Piriformis, gemelli, obturators, quadratus femoris
  • Nerves: Sacral plexus (L5-S2)

Knee

• Flexion:
  • Muscles: Hamstrings (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus)
  • Nerves: Sciatic (L5-S2)
• Extension:
  • Muscles: Quadriceps (rectus femoris, Vasti muscles)
  • Nerves: Femoral (L2-L4)

Ankle

• Plantarflexion:
  • Muscles: Gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis posterior
  • Nerves: Tibial (S1-S2)
• Dorsiflexion:
  • Muscles: Tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus
  • Nerves: Deep fibular (L4-S1)
• Inversion:
  • Muscles: Tibialis anterior & posterior
  • Nerves: Deep fibular (TA), Tibial (TP)
• Eversion:
  • Muscles: Peroneus longus & brevis
  • Nerves: Superficial fibular (L5-S1)

Toes

• Toe flexion:
  • Muscles: Flexor digitorum longus & brevis, flexor hallucis
  • Nerves: Tibial (S2-S3)
• Toe extension:
  • Muscles: Extensor digitorum longus & brevis, extensor hallucis
  • Nerves: Deep fibular (L5-S1)

Manual muscle testing (MMT) overview

How to perform MMT

1. Position the patient

   • Place the patient in a position that isolates the desired muscle/movement.
   • Gravity-eliminated positions are used for weaker muscles.

2. Stabilize proximally

   • Prevent substitution by stabilizing the joint or segment above.

3. Ask for active movement

   • Instruct the patient to move the limb through full ROM without resistance.

4. Apply resistance

   • Apply gradual, steady resistance opposite the movement direction.
   • Resistance is typically applied distal to the joint being tested.

5. Palpate the muscle

   • Palpate the muscle/tendon to confirm activation, especially in low-grade testing.

MMT grading scale (0–5)

MMT positions by major muscle groups (examples)

Shoulder Flexion (e.g., anterior deltoid)

Elbow flexion (e.g., biceps brachii)

Hip Abduction (e.g., gluteus medius)

Knee extension (e.g., quadriceps)

Ankle dorsiflexion (e.g., tibialis anterior)