| Factor number | Name |
| I | Fibrinogen |
| II | Prothrombin |
| III | Tissue factor |
| IV | Calcium |
| V | Proaccelerin or labile factor |
| VII | Stable factor or proconvertin |
| VIII | Antihemophilic factor A |
| IX | Antihemophilic factor B or Christmas factor |
| X | Stuart-Prower factor |
| XI | Plasma thromboplastin antecedent |
| XII | Hageman factor |
| XIII | Fibrin stabilizing factor |
| XIV | Prekallikrein (Fletcher factor) |
| XV | HMWK (Fitzgerald factor) |
TPO is mainly produced by liver parenchymal cells and by endothelial cells of the liver sinusoids. TPO production can also occur in proximal tubule cells of the kidney and in bone marrow stromal cells. Production is mainly constitutive (with no change in TPO mRNA levels). Regulation is mediated by negative feedback from the TPO-R-expressing platelet pool, which internalizes and destroys free circulating TPO.
IL-6 can induce hepatic TPO mRNA production in reactive/inflammatory thrombocythemia. Binding of old desialylated platelets to the hepatic Ashwell-Morell receptor (AMR) has been shown to promote liver TPO mRNA production.
TPO plays a dual role in hematopoiesis:
In clinical practice, arterial oxygenation can be measured:
Oxygen content (oxygen concentration) depends on Hb level, saturation of Hb with oxygen, affinity of Hb for oxygen and type of Hb, ventilation, gas exchange, and partial pressure of oxygen. Hb level is the most important factor determining O2 content.
SaO2 (arterial saturation with oxygen) is normally above 95%.
Oxygen carrying capacity of blood is 20 ml/100 ml of blood.
Oxygen delivery to tissues depends on cardiac output and oxygen content.
Normally, mixed venous blood oxygen saturation (MVO2) is 75% at rest. Exercise, hypotension, and reduced cardiac output increase tissue extraction of O2 from blood, causing reduced MVO2.
Anemia: oxygen content decreased; SaO2 normal; PaO2 normal.
Methemoglobinemia: SpO2 by pulse oximeter normal; oxygen content low; decreased SaO2; normal PaO2.
CO poisoning: SpO2 by pulse oximeter normal; PaO2 normal; SaO2 decreased; oxygen content low.
SaO2 can be measured directly by ABG or indirectly by pulse oximetry/spectrophotometer; SaO2 < 80% causes cyanosis.
The delivery of oxygen by arterial blood to body tissues has several critical determinants, including blood oxygen concentration (content), saturation (SO2) and partial pressure, hemoglobin concentration, and cardiac output.
Pulse oximetry can be error-prone in poor peripheral circulation, nail varnish, methemoglobinemia, and carboxyhemoglobinemia.
Venous blood sampling for ABG can be taken from peripheral veins, central venous catheters, or mixed venous blood (pulmonary artery catheter). Venous pH is slightly lower, and PCO2 is slightly higher than arterial values.
PvO2 35-45 mmHg; PvCO2 45 mmHg // PaO2 80-100 mmHg; PaCO2 40 mmHg.; normal SvO2 is 65-75%; SaO2 > 95%.
PaO2 is determined by dissolved O2 in plasma.
IDA, Thalassemia, lead toxicity, chronic inflammation, anemia of chronic disease, sideroblastic anemia, H.pylori infection, Celiac disease
Differential diagnosis of microcytic anemias*
| Test | IDA | Thalassemia | AOCD# | Sideroblastic Anemia |
| Serum Iron | Low | Normal to high | Normal to low | Normal to high |
| Ferritin | Low | Normal to high | Normal to high | Normal to high |
| Marrow iron stores** | Very low or absent | High | Normal to high | High |
| TIBC | High | Normal | Low | Normal |
| Transferrin saturation | Low | Normal to high | Normal to low | Normal to high |
| RDW | High | Normal to high | Normal | High |
| FEP | High | Normal | Normal | Normal |
| Serum TfR | High | Normal | Normal | Normal |
* Typically MCV, MCH and MCHC are decreased in all hypochromic microcytic anemias.
** Hemosiderin and ferritin
# May be hypochromic or normochromic
Transferrin receptor (TfR): TfR is a transmembrane protein on cell surfaces that helps bring iron into the cell. It is upregulated in IDA. Transferrin-bound iron binds to TfR to form a complex, which is then internalized. Iron is released and either used for hemoglobin synthesis or stored. Serum TfR levels increase in IDA, whereas levels remain the same in AOCD.
RBC indices
| MCV or mean corpuscular volume | Estimates RBC size |
| MCH or mean corpuscular hemoglobin | Estimates amount of Hb per RBC |
| MCHC or mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration | Estimates amount of Hb per unit volume |
| RDW, related to anisocytosis | Estimates variability in RBC sizes; increased in anisocytosis |
| PCV or hematocrit | Compares RBC volume to plasma volume. Reduced in anemias |
The Schilling test was used to differentiate between causes of megaloblastic anemia. The test is done in two stages. It involves oral and parenteral administration of radio-cobalt-labelled Vit B12, followed by measurement of urinary excretion.
Interpretation of Schilling test results
| Test Results | Interpretation |
| Normal stage 1# | Dietary deficiency, partial gastrectomy, malabsorption |
| Abnormal stage 1, Normal stage 2 | Pernicious anemia, gastrectomy |
| Both stage 1 and 2 abnormal | Ileal resection, small bowel bacterial overgrowth syndrome, Crohn’s disease, renal insufficiency, D.latum infestation |
# Adequate levels of radiolabeled B12 excreted in urine after oral and parenteral doses.
Common findings on peripheral smear
| Finding | Significance |
| Red blood cells | Biconcave disks, smaller than small lymphocytes, central pallor equal to up to 45% of diameter, normocytic and normochromic |
| Macrocytes | Large RBCs; seen in macrocytic anemias, aplastic anemia, chronic liver disease |
| Microcytes | Small RBCs; seen in microcytic anemias, hemolytic anemia |
| Anisocytosis | Abnormal variability in RBC size |
| Poikilocytosis | Abnormal variability in RBC shape; seen in anemias, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia |
| Polychromatophilia/chromasia | Dense staining, bluish grey RBCs, due to increased immature RBCs or reticulocytes |
| Spherocytes | Round, uniformly stained RBCs with no central pallor; seen in hereditary spherocytosis, AIHA, ABO hemolytic disease of newborn |
| Stomatocytes | Elliptical area of central pallor, appearing like a “stoma” or mouth; seen in hereditary stomatocytosis, chronic alcoholism |
| Target cells (codocytes) | RBC appears like a “target”, due to increased RBC membrane; liver disease, IDA, thalassemia, splenectomy, Hb C disease |
| Sickle cells (drepanocytes) | Crescent or “sickle” shaped cells; seen in sickle cell anemia, Hb C-Harlem |
| Elliptocytes (ovalocytes) | Oval shaped RBCs; seen in hereditary elliptocytosis, megaloblastic anemia |
| Teardrop cells (dacrocytes) | RBCs shaped like “tear drops” with one rounded end and the other pointed end; marrow infiltration by fibrosis, malignancies, disorders of the spleen, megaloblastic anemia, thalassemia |
| Acanthocytes (spur cells) | Spiculated RBCs with multiple surface projections (spicules) that are irregularly placed; liver disease, splenectomy |
| Echinocytes or burr cells | Spiculated RBCs with relatively evenly spaced and pointed spicules; uremia, pyruvate kinase deficiency, hemolytic anemias, hypomagnesemia, hypophosphatemia, burns, liver disease; may be an artifact |
| Bite cells (degmacytes) and Heinz bodies | Bite cells are RBCs with irregular membrane that results from removal of denatured Hb (Heinz bodies) from RBC cytoplasm by splenic macrophages; seen in G6PD deficiency |
| Schistocytes or helmet cells or horn cells | Fragmented RBCs with variable morphologies; TTP, HUS, artificial heart valves, burns, DIC, HELLP syndrome |
| Howell-Jolly bodies | RBCs with basophilic inclusions of DNA remnants; seen post-splenectomy, sickle cell anemia, megaloblastic anemia, MDS, hereditary spherocytosis, severe hemolytic anemia |
| Basophilic stippling or punctate basophilia | Multiple coarse or fine blue cytoplasmic granules in RBCs; negative Perls’ reaction; due to aggregates of ribosomes or RNA; seen in lead poisoning, megaloblastic anemia, thalassemia, defective Hb, infections, liver disease |
| Pappenheimer bodies | RBCs with cytoplasmic granules of iron; stain with iron stains like Prussian blue; positive Perls’ reaction; typically seen in bone marrow; sideroblastic anemia, hemochromatosis, hemolytic anemia, MDS, lead poisoning, sickle cell disease, |
| Ringed sideroblasts | Erythroblasts with a perinuclear ring of blue iron-containing granules due to iron-loaded mitochondria; sideroblastic anemia, lead poisoning, MDS, pyridoxine deficiency, drugs like isoniazid, linezolid, cycloserine, copper deficiency, excess zinc, |
| Toxic granules | Large, prominent, basophilic granules in neutrophil cytoplasm; seen in bacterial infections, aplastic anemia, inflammation, myelofibrosis |
| Dohle bodies | Blue inclusions in neutrophil cytoplasm; consist of ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum; seen in bacterial infections, inflammation, burns, pregnancy, cyclophosphamide |
| Nucleated RBCs | Severe hemolysis, hemorrhage, hypoxia, myelofibrosis. |
| Pelger-Huet anomaly | WBCs with bilobed, “peanut” or “dumb-bell” shaped nuclei; hereditary, myeloblastic and proliferative disorders |
| Hypersegmented neutrophils | Neutrophils with six or more nuclear lobes; Vit B12 and folate deficiency, myeloblastic and proliferative disorders |
| Reactive lymphocytes | Larger than small lymphocytes, cytoplasmic vacuoles, dark blue cytoplasm, “kidney-bean” shaped or cleaved nuclei; viral infections like infectious mononucleosis, hepatitis, CMV, HIV etc. phenytoin. |
| Megathrombocytes | Large platelets, >3 micrometer in diameter; thrombocytopenia, DIC, myelofibrosis, megaloblastic anemia, Bernard Soulier disease |
| Microthrombocytes | Small platelets; seen in Wiskott Aldrich syndrome |
Normal hemoglobins: Physiologically occurring hemoglobins are HbA (95-98%) composed of alpha 2 beta 2 chains; HbA2 (2-3%) composed of alpha 2 delta 2; and HbF (1% in adults; 60-80% in fetuses) composed of alpha 2 gamma 2.
Hemoglobin Constant Spring (Hb CS): Hb CS is an abnormal Hb caused by a mutation at the termination codon of the α2-globin gene. This mutation leads to synthesis of unstable, elongated α-globin chains with 172 (instead of 141) amino acid residues. It is more common in Southeast Asian and Chinese people. Homozygosity of Hb CS can be associated with a thalassemia intermedia phenotype with mild anemia, jaundice, and hepatosplenomegaly. It increases the risk of HbH disease.
Folate supplementation is needed in thalassemia due to increased demand. Iron supplementation, however, is contraindicated unless iron deficiency is also present.
Anemia in lead poisoning: Lead inhibits the enzymes delta aminolevulinic acid dehydrogenase and ferrochelatase. It causes microcytic hypochromic anemia, basophilic stippling of RBCs, Pappenheimer bodies, and ringed sideroblasts.
Clinical box: Blood group testing is complicated in the presence of AIHA. Blood group should be confirmed using washed RBCs before typing, saline or LISS suspended RBCs, serum dilution, adsorption studies, chloroquine elution testing, and RBC genotyping.
Genes associated with Hereditary Spherocytosis
| Gene | Role |
| ANK1 | Ankyrin-1 gene; protein attaches to membrane proteins; role in maintaining structure, stability, and flexibility of RBC |
| EPB42 | Erythrocyte membrane protein band 4.2, ATP binding protein; regulates association of protein 3 with ankyrin; autosomal recessive; alternate splicing defects. |
| SLC4A1 | Codes for anion exchanger 1 (AE1); transports anions across RBC membrane (Cl-/HCO3- exchanger) |
| SPTA1 | Codes for spectrin; scaffold protein in RBC membrane; connects to actin |
| SPTB | Codes for spectrin; associated with spherocytosis type 2 |
Types of Sickle cell disease
| Type | Characteristics |
| HbSS or SCA (sickle cell anemia) | Homozygous for HbS; also called sickle cell anemia; most severe |
| HbSC | Heterozygous; carries one HbS and one HbC; milder disease |
| HbS beta thalassemia | Heterozygous; carries one HbS and one beta thalassemia gene |
| HbSD, HbSE and HbSO | Double heterozygous; one HbS and the other either abnormal Hb D, E, or O. |
Sickle cell trait or SCT: SCT occurs in heterozygotes who inherit one HbS and one normal Hb. They are asymptomatic, but their offspring may develop SCD. Pain crises can occur under conditions of increased atmospheric pressure (such as scuba diving), low atmospheric oxygen at high altitudes (flying, mountain climbing), extreme exercise, or dehydration.
People with SCT are at increased risk of heat stroke, renal medullary carcinoma, chronic renal disease, thromboembolism, and pregnancy complications such as eclampsia, maternal infections, IUGR, and fetal loss.
Diagnosis:
Sodium metabisulphite can induce RBC sickling (positive sickling test) in SCT. Electrophoresis shows 35-40% of total Hb as HbS.
Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, Fanconi anemia, aplastic anemia (multiple causes), myelodysplastic syndromes, hypersplenism, megaloblastic anemia, copper deficiency, zinc excess, myelofibrosis, bone marrow infiltration from malignancy, leukemias and lymphomas, Gaucher’s disease, PNH, SLE, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome etc.
Left shift of neutrophils: “Left shift” refers to the presence of immature neutrophils (band forms, myelocytes, metamyelocytes, promyelocytes) in the peripheral smear. Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase increases in a left shift. This occurs due to cytokines IL1 and TNF, which accelerate release of WBCs from the bone marrow pool. It is seen in bacterial infections.
Von Willebrand Factor or vWF: vWF is a glycoprotein with binding domains for FVIII, platelets, and connective tissue. It protects FVIII from degradation by activated protein C and supports clot formation. Thrombin releases activated FVIII from vWF.
vWF is synthesized by endothelial cells and megakaryocytes and stored in Weibel-Palade bodies in endothelial cells. It is also present in alpha granules of platelets. Histamine, oestrogens, thrombin, and fibrin regulate release of vWF from endothelial cells into circulation. vWF can also be released from platelets by ADP, collagen, and thrombin.
vWF helps platelets adhere to vascular endothelium by binding to platelet receptor GPIb.
Ristocetin cofactor assay: This test assesses vWF activity. It is based on the principle that ristocetin facilitates binding of platelet GPIb to vWF. Patient plasma is added to a suspension of washed platelets plus ristocetin, and the rate of platelet aggregation is measured. Normal values are 50-200 IU/dl. VWD patients typically have much lower levels.
RIPA (ristocetin-induced platelet aggregation) is similar to the ristocetin cofactor assay, except it uses the patient’s platelets. A positive test shows platelet aggregation. A negative test suggests a defect in vWF and/or platelet GPIb.
Hemophilia presents more commonly with joint bleeding, while vWD presents more commonly with mucocutaneous bleeding.
Cryoprecipitate: Cryoprecipitate is derived from plasma and contains fibrinogen, Factor VIII, Factor XIII, and vWF. A single unit typically has a volume of 10 to 15 ml. It has a higher concentration of clotting factors than FFP. It may transmit blood-borne pathogens because it is pooled from multiple donors.
Fresh frozen plasma or FFP: FFP is derived from whole blood or plasma. Each unit is from a single donor and has a volume of 250-300 ml. It contains clotting factors and does not contain platelets. Each unit increases clotting factor level by 3%. It should be ABO-compatible with the recipient.
Adverse effects include allergic reactions, anaphylaxis, transfusion related lung injury, hemolysis, blood-borne infections (rare), and fluid overload.
Indications include end-stage liver disease, DIC, multiple factor deficiencies, vit K deficiency, TTP, HUS, acute blood loss, and immediate reversal of warfarin therapy.
Each unit of platelet transfusion increases the platelet count by 5-8000/mm3 in adults. 36.
Infections, cancers, vitamin deficiencies, and autoimmune disorders can present with similar symptoms as TMA.
FAB (French-American-British) classification of AML
| Class | Features |
| M0 Undifferentiated | Peroxidase and Sudan black negative; CD34+, TdT negative; resistant to chemotherapy, associated with trisomy 13 |
| M1 AML without maturation | Granular staining with Sudan black B; <10% cells are mature beyond promyelocyte stage; |
| M2 AML with maturation | More mature than M1; promyelocytes and myelocytes seen; more granular cells; prominent Auer rods; associated with t(8;21) resulting in AML-ETO fusion gene whose product can be detected by RT-PCR; better prognosis |
| M3 Acute promyelocytic leukemia | Promyelocytes show heavily granulated cytoplasm with azurophilic granules; multiple Auer rods seen (Faggot cells); t(15;17); Sudan black B and MPO +; CD33+; HLA DR negative; associated with DIC, ICH |
| M4 Acute myelomonocytic leukemia (Naegeli type) | Mix of myeloid and monocytic elements; >20% of leukemic cells in bone marrow are monocytic; extramedullary sites may be involved; hyperleukocytosis, dysplastic eosinophils may be seen; associated with inversion of Chr 16; hypokalemia may occur |
| M5 Acute monocytic leukemia (Schilling type) | >80% bone marrow blasts are myelocytes; folded nuclei may be seen; more common in older adults; extramedullary involvement like gum hypertrophy, infiltration of the skin, GIT, CNS, eyes etc.; high lysozyme levels, hypokalemia; hyperleukocytosis; erythrophagocytosis may occur; less responsive to chemotherapy |
| M6 Acute erythroleukemia (Di Guglielmo’s syndrome) | Myeloblasts plus erythroid precursor changes like increased number of megaloblasts, karyorrhexis, increased mitosis, ringed sideroblasts; antibodies to glycophorin A seen; PAS +; less responsive to chemotherapy |
| M7 Acute megakaryocytic leukemia | Dysplastic megakaryocytes with cytoplasmic budding; thrombocytosis; PAS and acid phosphatase positive; Sudan black B, MPO, esterase negative; platelet antigens positive like CD41 OR GpIIB/IIIa; platelet peroxidase + |
Retinoic acid role in treatment of M3 promyelocytic leukemia (PML): Translocation t(15;17) is seen in PML. It affects the function of the RAR alpha (retinoic acid receptor alpha) gene on chromosome 17 and the PML gene on chromosome 15. This translocation forms a fusion gene that blocks transcription of genes controlled by RAR alpha. All-trans retinoic acid removes this transcriptional block, allowing blast cells to differentiate into mature cells and inducing remission of leukemia. Anthracyclines are added to the regimen for curative therapy.
FAB classification of ALL*
| Class | Features |
| L1 | Small cells with scant basophilic cytoplasm, small nucleoli, and homogenous chromatin |
| L2 | Large cells with moderate cytoplasm, nuclear clefts, and large nucleoli |
| L3** | Medium to large cells with moderate cytoplasm, stippled chromatin, and prominent cytoplasmic vacuoles |
* Not clinically relevant nowadays
**L3 is now Burkitt’s lymphoma
WHO classification of ALL: Most ALL arise from B lymphocytes, while about 15% arise from T lymphocytes. Accordingly, ALL is classified into three groups:
WHO classification of ALL is used for accurate diagnosis and treatment and is based on immunophenotyping.
Immunophenotyping of B-cell lineage ALL:
Immunophenotyping of T-cell lineage ALL:
Reed-Sternberg cells: Reed-Sternberg cells are malignant CD 15+, CD 30+ B cells classically seen in Hodgkin’s lymphoma. They show inhibition of transcription factor NF-kB and therefore escape apoptosis. They are large cells with bilobar or multilobar nuclei (owl eye nucleus), a perinuclear halo, and abundant slightly basophilic cytoplasm. Mononuclear variants of Reed-Sternberg cells are called Hodgkin cells.
B symptoms: B symptoms are systemic symptoms of lymphomas and include fever, drenching night sweats, and weight loss. They are a bad prognostic marker and indicate distant spread of the malignancy.
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