Demography, or the study of population and how it relates to urbanization, is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities.
Age
Aging and the life course
In the U.S., socialization is largely shaped by age norms throughout life. As individuals age, they experience transitions into new roles, such as beginning school, joining the workforce, or retiring.
Age cohorts and social significance of aging
An age cohort consists of individuals born within the same time period. Analyzing a population’s age distribution reveals social and cultural trends and aids in planning for future social and economic challenges.
Baby Boomers—those born between 1946 and 1964—are now in their 60s and 70s. This generation came of age during the 1960s and early 1970s and generally experienced greater earnings and a higher standard of living than previous generations. However, many did not adequately prepare for retirement. The reasons for this financial shortfall vary, ranging from excessive spending and economic downturns to company closures that reduced pension payments. Additionally, the rising cost of higher education posed a financial challenge for many Baby Boomers as they funded their children’s college education. Regardless of the cause, a significant number of retirees express concerns about financial insecurity and the risk of depleting their savings.
There is also growing concern about the sustainability of Medicare and Social Security. Ideally, with enough workers contributing to Social Security, retirees should be able to withdraw benefits as needed. However, as Baby Boomers increasingly begin to claim Social Security, while fewer younger workers contribute to the system, there is a risk that the Social Security trust fund could be depleted within the next decade.
The issue of an aging population is not unique to the United States. By 2050, it is estimated that the global population of individuals aged 65 and older will reach 1.5 billion.
Generation X- individuals born between 1965 and 1980, often recognized for their self-reliance, strong dedication to work, and emphasis on maintaining a healthy work-life balance. They tend to be practical and skeptical of traditional institutions, prioritizing job stability and financial security. Additionally, they are adaptable to technology but generally favor a more independent, less intrusive management approach. Members of Generation X in the U.S. may need to retire very late in life, or not at all, as the proposed retirement age for their generation is seventy. Many are already caring for aging parents and even grandparents, as well as raising kids or starting to welcome their own grandchildren.
Millennials, born between the early 1980s and the mid-1990s, have distinct perspectives compared to Baby Boomers regarding the transition from childhood to adulthood and perceptions of aging. This generation was significantly impacted by the 2008 financial recession, which coincided with many of them entering, attending, or graduating from high school and college. With job opportunities at historic lows, a substantial number of graduates faced difficulties securing employment, leading some to move back in with their parents and struggle with student loan repayment. These delays into the economic and independent steps into adulthood have postponed the age at which this generation marries or partners, buys a home, and has children.
Generation Z refers to individuals born between 1996 and 2010. This generation is the most racially and ethnically diverse to date and is on track to have the highest average level of education. Gen Z is often recognized for its idealism, strong commitment to inclusivity, and advocacy for social progress. As true “digital natives”, they were born into technology and have little to no memory of life before smartphones. They were particularly affected by Covid-19, either as students or young employees often in occupations derailed by the pandemic, like serving and retail.
Age Stratification Theory suggests that society categorizes individuals based on age, similar to how it differentiates people by race, class, and gender.
Gender
Gender refers to the social and cultural distinctions associated with behaviors traditionally categorized as male or female.
Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation refers to an individual’s enduring emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attraction to people of the same gender, a different gender, or multiple genders. It exists on a spectrum and is distinct from gender identity.
Common orientations include heterosexuality (attraction to the opposite gender), homosexuality (attraction to the same gender), and bisexuality (attraction to both genders). Some individuals identify as asexual, experiencing little to no sexual attraction, while others use terms like pansexual to describe attraction regardless of gender or transgender status.
Sexual orientation is shaped by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. It is widely recognized as an intrinsic aspect of identity rather than a choice. Societal attitudes toward different orientations vary across cultures and historical periods, influencing levels of acceptance, legal rights, and social inclusion.
The social construction of gender
Gender characteristics can vary significantly across different societies, as gender is a socially constructed concept. Long or short hair, for example, has varied as a typical characteristic of males or females across cultures and time.
The binary perception of gender, where individuals are categorized strictly as either male or female, is not universal and is specific to certain cultures. Some societies recognize gender as a fluid concept.
The concept of gender roles refers to societal expectations regarding how men and women should present themselves and behave. These roles are shaped by cultural norms and standards. Children learn gender roles through play and by imitating behaviors they observe in their surroundings.
Gender segregation
Gender segregation is the practice of dividing activities, services, or environments by “gender”. Separate male and female-labeled restrooms, having male and female divisions in sports, or designated rooms in a gym for females are all examples of segregation by gender. The commonly-cited reasons for these types of gender segregation include comfort, safety, or fairness in competition, though current research and public opinions actively debate these factors and examine unintended consequences such as exclusion of transgender individuals.
Sometimes, gender segregation is a widespread practice and a part of life for religious or cultural reasons. For example, Orthodox Jews and more conservative Muslim individuals or communities tend to separate men and women outside the home, sitting in separate sections in places of worship, keeping distance on the street, and sometimes even offering separate seating on public transportation.
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