Sociology examines social life through two distinct lenses. Microsociology investigates small-scale interactions, whether they occur face-to-face or through digital channels in our daily routines. Macrosociology, on the other hand, focuses on broader societal structures and trends, such as population dynamics, social systems, and overarching social frameworks.
Functionalism, also known as structural-functional theory, views society as a cohesive structure composed of social institutions—such as government, education, and family—that collectively address the needs of individuals. Influenced by Herbert Spencer’s analogy between society and the human body, functionalists argue that each societal component plays a function that contributes to overall order and stability.
Émile Durkheim expanded on Spencer’s ideas, suggesting that society relies on shared values, language, and symbols to remain stable and adaptive over time. Alfred Radcliffe-Brown added that the contribution of each repeated activity in social life reinforces stability and continuity. In a well-functioning society, these interdependent parts operate harmoniously, a condition Talcott Parsons termed dynamic equilibrium.
Conflict theory is a macro-level framework that interprets society as a competition for scarce resources, an idea strongly associated with Karl Marx. In this view, institutions like government, education, and religion mirror underlying struggles for social, material, and political resources, reproducing inequality as powerful groups hold onto their advantages.
Ludwig Gumplowicz expanded upon Marx by arguing that war and conquest lie at the foundation of civilizations, with ethnic and cultural conflicts resulting in societies dominated by a single group holding authority over others. Max Weber added that people experience inequality differently based on class differences and the potential for social mobility, as well as whether they view existing power structures as legitimate.
More recent studies connect this theory to gender- and race-based inequalities, revealing how institutionalized systems protect those already in positions of power. Out of these analyses grew critical race theory, which examines how white privilege and the accompanying wealth, power, and status perpetuate structural inequality.
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory suggesting that people construct their social worlds through communication. Instead of merely responding to social forces, individuals take an active role in forming society. George Herbert Mead is recognized as a pioneer of this perspective, though he did not formally publish his work on it. The theory’s main premises are that humans interact with items and situations based on the meanings assigned to them, these meanings arise from our engagement with others and society, and people constantly interpret and modify these meanings within specific contexts.
Constructivism builds upon symbolic interactionism by arguing that reality is constructed in the human mind. Individuals create social constructs through ongoing interaction, and those constructs persist over time if they are widely accepted by society. This approach is often used to analyze how ideas of deviance form within different cultures.
Social constructivism emphasizes that knowledge and experiences only become “real” if people believe in them collectively. What counts as “true” can vary among cultures, highlighting the significance of shared beliefs. Examples of collectively validated ideas are known as social constructs, which are maintained through shared consensus. Some perspectives divide knowledge into brute facts, seen as self-evident truths (e.g., humans need oxygen to live), and institutional facts, which rely on societal conventions or other facts for their legitimacy (e.g., currency having value). In a stronger version of social constructionism, there are no brute facts at all, as everything we believe and know is shaped by language and cultural context.
Rational choice theory (RCT) suggests that people act out of self-interest by selecting behaviors that maximize rewards and minimize costs, assuming they possess sufficient resources and information to make such decisions. Exchange theory similarly posits that individuals choose actions that yield benefits and avoid those leading to punishment, based on perceived outcomes.
Feminist theory emerges as a type of conflict theory examining how gender roles and inequalities are upheld. Radical feminism, for instance, focuses on how the family can reinforce a patriarchal system in which men’s contributions hold more value, leading to women’s perspectives being overshadowed. However, Peggy Sanday’s study of the Indonesian Minangkabau illustrates that in some matriarchal contexts, men and women operate more cooperatively. Notably, men in these societies do not experience the bifurcated consciousness that many women in contemporary U.S. culture encounter.
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