8A: Self-Identity

Self-concept, self-identity, and social identity

Charles Cooley proposed that a person’s self-perception is shaped partly by how they believe others view them, a process known as the “looking glass self” (1902). Later, George Herbert Mead examined the self—the unique identity developed through social interaction. In order to form this sense of self, individuals must learn to see themselves as others do. This skill is not innate; rather, it emerges through socialization, which teaches us to adopt someone else’s viewpoint and interpret the world from their perspective. This process helps us become self-aware.

Mead suggested a specific developmental sequence:

• In the preparatory stage, children merely imitate others because they lack the capacity to understand how others perceive things. They copy the actions of people they engage with regularly, such as caregivers.
• Next is the play stage, where children begin to take on the role of a single other person. For instance, they may assume a parent’s perspective by mimicking adult behaviors—playing dress-up or pretending to talk on the phone.

The role of self-esteem, self-efficacy, and locus of control in self-concept and self-identity

• Self-esteem
  • Refers to an individual’s overall sense of self-worth and personal value. It encompasses beliefs and emotions about one’s abilities, appearance, and general identity.
• Self-efficacy
  • Represents the level of confidence in one’s abilities, which is shaped by social experiences. Self-efficacy influences how people face challenges and achieve goals.
• Locus of control
  • Concerns beliefs about the degree of control individuals have over their lives. According to concept creator Rotter, people tend to have either an internal locus of control (belief in personal agency) or an external locus of control (belief that external factors determine outcomes).

Different types of identities

• Race/Ethnicity: While race often refers to physical characteristics like skin color and genetic traits, >Ethnicity involves shared culture, language, religion, and traditions.
• Gender: Involves self-identification and expression (e.g., male, female, nonbinary), distinct from sex, which is a biological classification.
• Age: Reflects chronological age versus one’s subjective sense of how old they feel.
• Sexual orientation: Pertains to whom a person is attracted.
• Class: Related to wealth or the degree of respect afforded to someone, sometimes for reasons beyond money.

Formation of identity

Theories of identity development (e.g., gender, moral, psychosexual, social)

• Moral development

  • A vital element of socialization, moral development describes how individuals learn what their society deems “good” or “bad,” which helps maintain social order. Lawrence Kohlberg introduced a theory of moral development with three stages: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.
    • Preconventional: Young children, who have limited cognitive abilities, perceive their environment largely via their senses, and morality is based on punishments and rewards.
    • Conventional: Typically develops in adolescence; at this stage, individuals consider how actions affect others’ feelings, defining right and wrong in terms of social conformity and law and order.
    • Postconventional: Involves more abstract moral reasoning. People realize that legality does not always coincide with morality, emphasizing social contracts and universal ethical principles.

• Gender

  • Carol Gilligan observed that Kohlberg’s research focused only on males, potentially causing gender bias. She found that boys typically adopt a justice perspective, emphasizing rules and laws, whereas girls often display a care and responsibility perspective, evaluating the reasons behind behaviors that may appear morally wrong.
  • Gilligan argued these distinctions reflect gender socialization rather than inherent moral differences. Kohlberg presumed that the justice perspective was the superior approach; Gilligan, however, contended that neither perspective is inherently “better.” She proposed that boys are usually socialized for work settings, where rules facilitate efficiency, while girls are socialized for home environments, where adaptability fosters harmonious caregiving and nurturing.

• Psychosexual

  • Sigmund Freud introduced psychosexual development, suggesting that children’s pleasure-seeking is focused on a particular erogenous zone during each of five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

• Psychosocial
  • Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory highlights the social aspects of personal growth. While Freud believed personality forms solely during childhood, Erikson contended that it evolves throughout life. He introduced ego identity, emphasizing that social relationships shape how we perceive ourselves.

Influence of social factors on identity formation

• Influence of individuals

  • As noted, Charles Cooley developed the concept of the looking-glass self, contending that people’s self-concept partially emerges from their impressions of how others see them. Imitation is crucial during early childhood, when children mimic the behaviors of those around them (e.g., parents, teachers). Later, in the play stage, children assume roles such as doctor or teacher, based on what they have observed.

• Influence of groups

  • A reference group offers a standard for comparison. Peer groups in the United States often serve this function, but many individuals draw on multiple reference groups—such as family or cultural communities—that may present conflicting norms and expectations.

Influence of culture and socialization on identity formation

• Culture encompasses a society’s entire way of life, from casual interactions to deeply held values and traditions. Sociologists use the sociological imagination, a term by C. Wright Mills, to understand how personal experiences intersect with broader societal forces. Culture thus shapes the decisions and viewpoints that form our identities.