Prejudice is a biased way of thinking that arises from erroneous assumptions about a group of people, and it manifests as negative attitudes and emotions directed solely at individuals based on their membership in a particular group.
One of the contributing processes to prejudice involves the categorization and comparison of groups. We naturally and sometimes unconsciously classify individuals by factors such as wealth, social class, prestige, power, race, ethnicity, religion, political orientation, educational background, geographic location, and the distinction between blue-collar and white-collar occupations.
These categorizations often lead to the formation of opinions based on personal experiences or second-hand information, regardless of its accuracy, about groups that are seen as “other.” For example, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds might view the affluent as snobbish or disconnected, whereas those from wealthier backgrounds might assume that people in poverty are deficient in intelligence or work ethic.
Similarly, blue-collar workers may stereotype white-collar workers as impractical or elitist, while white-collar workers might harbor similar beliefs yet question the capacity of blue-collar workers for intellectual discourse. It is important to note that such occupational classifications pertain to the nature of the work rather than income levels, as some white-collar professions, such as secretarial work or teaching, can pay less than highly skilled blue-collar trades like plumbing or industrial maintenance.
The role of emotion in the development of prejudice is significant. When we experience a negative emotional response due to an encounter with a member of a certain group, we tend to generalize that negative feeling to the entire group, thereby forming a prejudice. A simple illustration of this process might occur when a baby or young child meets someone from a different group—perhaps someone with a different skin color or distinct attire, such as a woman wearing a hijab that includes a face veil—especially if the encounter is paired with a frightening event, like getting separated from their parent while shopping.
Often, such emotion-driven reactions are not solely based on a direct negative experience but may also be influenced by preexisting biases that have been shaped by media portrayals or the opinions of others. Consequently, the fear or apprehension experienced might stem from these deep-seated beliefs rather than from any immediate, personal threat.
The influence of cognition on prejudice operates somewhat differently, being based on information rather than on emotional reactions. In this case, an individual might observe an accurate fact—such as a higher representation of one group in the prison system—and then overgeneralize it, erroneously assuming that all members of that group share this characteristic. This cognitive process overlooks the subtle, contextual factors, such as variations in policing and sentencing practices across different groups, which can lead to distorted and oversimplified conclusions about the group as a whole.
Often, the initial spark for prejudice is a stereotype—a specific belief or assumption about individuals solely based on their group affiliation, irrespective of their personal attributes. Stereotypes tend to be generalized and applied uniformly to every member of a group. For instance, a person with prejudiced views towards older adults might assume that all elderly individuals are slow and incompetent, despite the existence of many who are both active and intellectually sharp. Similarly, a common stereotype is that all individuals of Asian descent excel in mathematics, even though there is considerable variability in mathematical abilities among them.
Stigma refers to a mark of disapproval or shame that is attached to a particular characteristic, trait, condition, or behavior. This negative label can lead to discrimination, exclusion, or mistreatment by society, social groups, or individuals. Stigma manifests in various forms, including social stigma (which is related to societal attitudes toward specific groups, such as those defined by race, religion, or gender), health stigma (associated with conditions like mental illness, HIV/AIDS, or physical disabilities), and self-stigma (the internalization of negative beliefs leading to feelings of shame or worthlessness).
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate and judge another culture solely through the lens of one’s own cultural standards, assuming that one’s own culture is the definitive measure of what is right. While a moderate level of cultural pride can foster a sense of community, extreme ethnocentrism may result in disdain for other cultures, thereby fostering misunderstanding, stereotyping, and conflict. This perspective sometimes underpins interventions by institutions that, even with good intentions, impose their own cultural values on others, seeing those cultures as inferior or in need of improvement.
In contrast, cultural imperialism involves the deliberate imposition of one culture’s values, beliefs, and practices on another. Historical examples include colonial expansions in the fifteenth century, during which European powers not only conquered territories but also attempted to transform indigenous populations by introducing their own religious, social, and political practices. In modern times, cultural imperialism can be observed when international aid organizations introduce agricultural methods or technologies from developed nations into regions where indigenous practices might be more suitable.
The debate between ethnocentrism and cultural relativism centers on how to evaluate cultural differences. Cultural relativism is the practice of assessing a culture by its own standards rather than by comparing it to another culture. This approach demands an open mind and a willingness to understand, and sometimes adopt, new values, norms, and practices without immediate judgment.
Several processes further shape the impact of stereotypes. The self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when holding a stereotype about a person leads to expectations that influence our behavior towards them, which in turn causes the individual to act in a manner that confirms our original stereotype. For instance, research has shown that when teachers expect higher performance from certain students, those students often achieve better grades than if lower expectations had been set. Conversely, stereotype threat is experienced when individuals fear that their actions might confirm negative stereotypes about their social group. This fear can trigger significant anxiety and stress, which in turn disrupt cognitive processes, impair performance, and reinforce the cycle of negative expectations.
Through these interconnected processes—ranging from the grouping and comparison of people to the roles of emotion, cognition, stereotypes, stigma, ethnocentrism, cultural imperialism, and the self-fulfilling and threatening effects of stereotypes—prejudice emerges and perpetuates itself within society.
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