Social movements

Relative deprivation refers to the perception that you or your group is unfairly disadvantaged compared to others. It doesn’t depend only on objective measures like income or resources. Instead, it’s a subjective feeling that develops when people compare their situation to a reference group (the group they use as a standard for comparison). This perceived inequality can produce frustration and discontent, which may motivate individuals or communities to push for social change or protest what they see as injustice.

Organization of social movements

Social movements are organized groups of individuals and organizations that unite around a shared grievance or goal in order to create social or political change.

• Proactive social movements promote change
• Reactive social movements resist change.

Movement strategies and tactics

Social movements may be organized in different ways:

• Some have decentralized leadership, where roles and influence emerge informally.
• Others use a formal hierarchy with designated leaders and clear chains of authority.

A shared ideology helps members interpret events in a common way, define what the problem is, and explain what should be done. Movements also rely on resource mobilization, which includes gathering the practical support needed to act - such as raising funds, recruiting volunteers, and attracting media attention.

Communication channels matter because they allow coordination and visibility. Movements may use traditional media and digital platforms to organize activities such as protests, rallies, boycotts, sit-ins, and online campaigns. Movements are also dynamic, meaning they adjust their strategies as political conditions and public opinion change.

Globalization

Factors contributing to globalization and perspectives on globalization

• Globalization is the integration of governments, cultures, and financial markets through trade. While it can bring benefits such as economic growth, countries that rely heavily on selling natural resources may be harmed. Critics argue that globalization gives multinational corporations too much power, allowing them to influence political decisions.
• Technology has been a key driver of globalization, with different periods shaped by military expansion, industrial power, and now the Internet. Technology also reshapes society in other ways, such as extending life expectancy through medical advances and changing agriculture to increase yields, often with environmental impacts.
• Globalization can also create inequalities - benefiting some while harming others. It may contribute to job loss, pollution, or reduced civil rights through surveillance. The digital divide highlights the gap between individuals and countries with and without access to technology.

Social changes in globalization

• Critics contend that globalization promotes cultural assimilation and the gradual erosion of minority cultures, perpetuates colonial practices, and worsens inequality. These pressures can contribute to social unrest and terrorism.

Urbanization

Industrialization and urban growth

• During the Industrial Era, rapid urban growth was driven by factory development, which drew people from rural areas into cities. New technology improved transportation, food production, and food preservation. As cities became overcrowded and expensive, many people moved to surrounding suburbs for more space while still commuting to urban jobs.

Suburbanization and urban decline

• In the 1850s, as urban populations grew and transportation improved (trolleys), suburbs began to form - communities close enough for daily commutes but offering more living space than cities. Over time, the automobile accelerated suburban sprawl. This expansion contributed to traffic congestion, longer commute times, and increased resource consumption (including petroleum), which in turn increased pollution. As some suburbs became more crowded and less attractive, wealthier residents moved to exurbs - communities farther from cities that offer more space but require even longer commutes. Suburbs, exurbs, and metropolitan areas together make up a metropolis.

Gentrification and urban renewal

• When cities built around manufacturing-based industries shift toward service and information economies, gentrification often follows. Gentrification occurs when middle- and upper-class residents move into historically poorer neighborhoods and renovate housing and businesses. As property values and rents rise, lower-income residents (often long-time locals) may be forced to relocate to more deteriorated areas. Gentrification is often driven by individuals or investment firms seeking high returns on investment.

Urban renewal, by contrast, refers to efforts - usually by government and sometimes by nonprofit organizations - to revitalize deteriorated urban areas for the intended use of existing residents. The goal is to improve quality of life. However, when urban renewal happens late in the deterioration process, rents and property values may have fallen very low due to not only appearance but also ongoing problems and inconveniences. In that situation, rapid improvements in infrastructure and appearance can unintentionally raise costs over time and price some residents out.