Race and ethnicity: appearance vs. culture, language, religion, and/or traditions.

The social construction of race is a more modern, objective way to understand racial categories. Research in this school of thought suggests that race isn’t clearly identifiable as a biological fact. Instead, it reflects how a society chooses to notice, interpret, and categorize physical appearance and other traits associated with groups. This perspective also argues that many earlier racial categories were based on pseudoscience and were often used to justify racist practices.

Racialization and racial formation

Racialization and race formation theory are related but distinct concepts in the study of race and society.

Racialization refers to the social process by which groups are assigned racial identities, often based on perceived physical or cultural traits. This process is shaped by historical, political, and economic forces and can change over time. It’s not only about labeling or classification; it also involves attaching meanings and expectations to groups in ways that affect social status and lived experiences.

Race formation theory, developed by Michael Omi and Howard Winant, explains race as a fluid social construct shaped by historical and institutional forces rather than a fixed biological reality. This theory emphasizes the role of political and social struggles in defining and redefining racial categories. It treats race as a product of both macro-level structures (such as laws and policies) and micro-level interactions (such as everyday social practices).

The key difference is that racialization describes the process of assigning racial meaning to a group, while race formation theory provides a broader framework for understanding how racial categories emerge, evolve, and gain social significance over time.

Immigration status

The U.S. is a diverse society that includes many cultures, races, and ethnicities, with people tracing their origins to many different national backgrounds. The U.S. Census Bureau collects racial data using federal guidelines and relies on self-identification. As a result, the data largely reflects the U.S. social understanding of race and may include elements of racial identity, national origin, and sociocultural group membership.

Population estimates, July 1, 2019, (V2019)	328,239,523
Race and Hispanic origin	Percentage (%)
White alone	76.3
Black or African American alone	13.4
American Indian and Alaska Native alone	1.3
Asian alone	5.9
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone	0.2
Two or more races	2.8
Hispanic or Latino	18.5
White alone, not Hispanic or Latino	60.1

To clarify the terminology in the table, note that the U.S. Census Bureau defines racial groups as follows:

• White: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.
• Black or African American: A person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa.
• American Indian or Alaska Native: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.
• Asian: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent including, for example, Cambodia, China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.
• Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander: A person having origins in any of the original peoples of Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands.

Patterns of immigration

Immigration patterns to the U.S. have shifted significantly over time. From 1890 to 1919, the vast majority of immigrants came from Europe, especially Southern and Eastern Europe. Since 1965, immigration has been dominated by arrivals from Latin America, with Mexico as a major source. Over the same period, a growing share - around a quarter - has come from Asia, reflecting a broader diversification of immigrant origins.

Patterns of U.S. immigration (Data from Pew Research Center, 2024)

Time period	Main source of immigrants	Key regions/countries
1890-1919	Nearly 90% from Europe	Around 60% from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia-Poland
Since 1965	About 50% from Latin America	Around 25% from Mexico, specifically, others often from Central America and the Caribbean
Since 1965	About 25% from Asia	Mostly from China, India, the Philippines

Intersections with race and ethnicity

Race and ethnicity are separate concepts, but they often overlap in everyday life. For example, someone can be Black and Hispanic, or African or German. Another person may be White and Jewish or Amish, Australian or American, or Asian and Buddhist or Muslim. When race and ethnicity intersect, that combination can carry its own connotations or social meanings.