Race and ethnicity: appearance vs. culture, language, religion and/or traditions.
The social construction of race is a more modern and objective of understanding racial categories. Research in this school of thought suggests that race is not clearly biologically identifiable but rather how a society chooses to recognize and categorize appearance associated with groups. Social construction of race also asserts that previous racial categories were not only based on pseudoscience but were often used to justify racist practices.
Racialization and race formation theory are related but distinct concepts in the study of race and society.
Racialization refers to the social process by which groups are assigned racial identities, often based on perceived physical or cultural traits. This process is shaped by historical, political, and economic forces and can change over time. It is not just about classification but also about the ways in which racial meanings are imposed on groups, influencing their social status and lived experiences.
Race formation theory, developed by Michael Omi and Howard Winant, explains how race is a fluid social construct shaped by historical and institutional forces rather than a fixed biological reality. This theory emphasizes the role of political and social struggles in defining and redefining racial categories, viewing race as a product of both macro-level structures (such as laws and policies) and micro-level interactions (such as everyday social practices).
The key difference between the two is that racialization describes the process of assigning racial meaning to a group, while race formation theory provides a broader framework for understanding how racial categories emerge, evolve, and gain social significance over time.
The U.S. is a diverse society, encompassing multiple cultures, races, and ethnicities, with individuals originating from various national backgrounds. The U.S. Census Bureau gathers racial data following federal guidelines, relying on self-identification. This data primarily reflects the social understanding of race in the country, incorporating elements of racial identity, national origin, and sociocultural groups.
| Population estimates, July 1, 2019, (V2019) | 328,239,523 |
| Race and Hispanic Origin | Percentage (%) |
| White alone | 76.3 |
| Black or African American alone | 13.4 |
| American Indian and Alaska Native alone | 1.3 |
| Asian alone | 5.9 |
| Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander alone | 0.2 |
| Two or More Races | 2.8 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 18.5 |
| White alone, not Hispanic or Latino | 60.1 |
To clarify the terminology in the table, note that the U.S. Census Bureau defines racial groups as follows:
Immigration patterns to the U.S. have shifted significantly over time. From 1890 to 1919, the vast majority of immigrants came from Europe, particularly from Southern and Eastern regions. However, since 1965, immigration has been dominated by arrivals from Latin America, with Mexico being a major source. Additionally, a growing share—around a quarter—has come from Asia, reflecting a broader diversification of immigrant origins.
| Time period | Main source of immigrants | Key regions/countries |
| 1890-1919 | Nearly 90% from Europe | Around 60% from Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Russia-Poland |
| Since 1965 | About 50% from Latin America | Around 25% from Mexico, specifically, others often from Central America and the Caribbean |
| Since 1965 | About 25% from Asia | Mostly from China, India, the Philippines |
Race and ethnicity are separate but intersecting. Someone can be Black and Hispanic or African or German; another individual may be White and Jewish or Amish, Australian or American, or Asian and Buddhist or Muslim. The intersection of our race and our ethnicity may have its own connotations or special meaning.
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