Motivation

Motivation refers to the wants or needs that guide behavior toward a particular goal. Beyond biological impulses, motivation may be intrinsic (stemming from internal factors) or extrinsic (stemming from external factors).

Intrinsically motivated actions are pursued due to the personal fulfillment or enjoyment they provide, while extrinsically motivated actions aim at acquiring some external benefit (e.g., approval or material reward).

In practice, we often experience a blend of intrinsic and extrinsic motives that can shift over time, occasionally in counterintuitive ways. An old saying proposes that loving one’s occupation makes work feel effortless. However, research suggests that if an extrinsic reward (like a paycheck) is introduced for an activity one already enjoys, this can transform the enjoyable task into “work,” reducing the initial intrinsic pleasure and possibly decreasing the overall time devoted to it.

Factors that influence motivation

Instinct

• One theorist proposed that behavior is driven by various instincts that promote survival. From a biological perspective, an instinct is an unlearned, species-specific pattern of behavior. However, different theorists generated competing lists of instincts, highlighting how learning shapes many aspects of human behavior.

Arousal

• There is an optimal level of arousal everyone seeks. Under-stimulation can prompt boredom and lead us to seek excitement, while over-stimulation can lead us to pursue calmer activities.
• Research finds that moderate arousal generally leads to the best performance; extremely low or high arousal can diminish outcomes. This pattern is described by the
• Yerkes-Dodson law, which indicates that simpler tasks are performed most effectively with higher arousal, and complex tasks benefit from lower arousal.

Drives (e.g., negative-feedback systems)

• In drive theory, deviations from homeostasis generate physiological needs and corresponding psychological drive states. These drives incite behavior aimed at restoring balance. For instance, dropping blood sugar levels trigger hunger, pushing one to find food until the imbalance is corrected.
• Drive theory also underscores how habits emerge: if a specific action successfully reduces a drive, we tend to repeat that action in similar situations.

Needs

• One psychologist proposed a hierarchy of needs, ranging from basic biological requirements to more personal and social motivations, often illustrated as a pyramid. One must typically satisfy lower-level needs—like hunger—before focusing on higher pursuits. Critics argue that this model can be subjective and may not always reflect real-world complexities.

Theories explaining how motivation affects human behavior

• Incentive theory: Emphasizes how incentives (e.g., rewards or prizes) can encourage or discourage particular behaviors.
• Drive reduction theory: Suggests we act to lessen unpleasant drives (e.g., removing a jacket when hot).
• Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based):
  • Expectancy theory: Proposes that individuals make conscious choices to minimize discomfort and maximize pleasure.
  • Goal-setting theory: Suggests establishing goals improves task performance, and success with smaller goals plus positive feedback leads to tackling more challenging objectives.

Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior

• Biological motivators: Rooted in innate processes, such as hunger, thirst, sex drive, and body temperature regulation.
• Sociocultural motivators: Stem from social and cultural influences. For example, social norms about hair length or style can affect a person’s choices regarding haircuts, head coverings, or accessories.