Motivation
Motivation refers to the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a particular goal. Beyond basic biological impulses, motivation can be:
- Intrinsic: driven by internal factors
- Extrinsic: driven by external factors
Intrinsically motivated actions are done for the personal enjoyment or fulfillment they provide. Extrinsically motivated actions are done to gain an external outcome, such as approval or a material reward.
In real life, motivation is often a mix of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and that mix can change over time - sometimes in surprising ways. For example, there’s a common idea that if you love your job, work won’t feel like work. However, research suggests that adding an extrinsic reward (like a paycheck) to an activity you already enjoy can shift how you experience it. The activity may start to feel more like an obligation, which can reduce the original intrinsic enjoyment and may even decrease the time you choose to spend on it.
Factors that influence motivation
Instinct
- One theorist proposed that behavior is driven by various instincts that support survival. Biologically, an instinct is an unlearned, species-specific pattern of behavior. However, theorists produced different (and competing) lists of instincts, which highlights that learning shapes many aspects of human behavior.
Arousal
- People tend to seek an optimal level of arousal. Under-stimulation can lead to boredom and push us to seek excitement, while over-stimulation can feel overwhelming and lead us to seek calmer activities.
- Research suggests that moderate arousal usually produces the best performance, while very low or very high arousal can reduce performance. This pattern is described by the Yerkes-Dodson law, which states that simpler tasks are performed best with higher arousal, while complex tasks tend to benefit from lower arousal.
Drives (e.g., negative-feedback systems)
- In drive theory, departures from homeostasis create physiological needs and corresponding psychological drive states. These drives motivate behavior aimed at restoring balance. For example, when blood sugar drops, hunger increases, which motivates you to seek food until the imbalance is corrected.
- Drive theory also helps explain how habits form: when a particular action successfully reduces a drive, you’re more likely to repeat that action in similar situations.
Needs
- One psychologist proposed a hierarchy of needs, often shown as a pyramid, that ranges from basic biological requirements to more personal and social motivations. The idea is that lower-level needs (like hunger) generally must be met before higher-level goals become the focus. Critics argue that this model can be subjective and doesn’t always capture real-world complexity.
Theories explaining how motivation affects human behavior
- Incentive theory: Emphasizes how incentives (e.g., rewards or prizes) can encourage or discourage particular behaviors.
- Drive reduction theory: Suggests we act to lessen unpleasant drives (e.g., removing a jacket when hot).
- Other theories (e.g., cognitive, need-based):
- Expectancy theory: Proposes that individuals make conscious choices to minimize discomfort and maximize pleasure.
- Goal-setting theory: Suggests establishing goals improves task performance, and success with smaller goals plus positive feedback leads to tackling more challenging objectives.
Biological and sociocultural motivators that regulate behavior
- Biological motivators: Rooted in innate processes, such as hunger, thirst, sex drive, and body temperature regulation.
- Sociocultural motivators: Stem from social and cultural influences. For example, social norms about hair length or style can affect a person’s choices regarding haircuts, head coverings, or accessories.