Hypnosis is a state of deep concentration and self-focus, with minimal awareness of external stimuli. In therapy, trained professionals use relaxation and suggestion to influence a patient’s thoughts and perceptions. Research indicates that hypnosis can be particularly effective for individuals highly receptive to suggestion, with brain imaging showing widespread changes in brain activity during hypnotic states.
It is crucial to distinguish therapeutic hypnosis from its portrayal in entertainment. Clinical hypnosis is performed with patient consent, often as part of ongoing treatment. While hypnosis can alter perception and memory, it does not grant superhuman abilities or force individuals to act against their morals. It is sometimes used to recover past memories, though these recollections may not always be reliable.
Meditation involves focusing attention on a specific target, such as breathing or a repetitive sound, to enhance present-moment awareness. Studies suggest that meditation may help lower blood pressure, reduce stress, improve sleep quality, and assist in managing mood disorders, anxiety, and pain.
A therapeutic approach incorporating meditation is dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), a branch of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). DBT is often used to treat borderline personality disorder, depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It emphasizes skills in:
The effects of psychoactive substances arise from their interactions with neurotransmitter systems in the brain. These substances can function as either agonists, which enhance neurotransmitter activity, or antagonists, which inhibit it.
Psychoactive drugs are typically categorized into three main groups:
Depressants reduce central nervous system activity. Alcohol (ethanol) is one of the most well-known depressants. Other examples include barbiturates and benzodiazepines, which enhance the effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter that calms the brain. Because GABA slows neural activity, these drugs are commonly used to treat anxiety and insomnia.
Prolonged use of depressants can lead to physical dependence, marked by tolerance and withdrawal symptoms, as well as psychological dependence, increasing the risk of substance abuse.
Stimulants boost overall brain activity, often acting as dopamine agonists, enhancing the neurotransmitter associated with reward and craving. Common stimulants include:
Amphetamines work similarly to cocaine by preventing dopamine reuptake and increasing its release. While stimulants are sometimes misused, they are also prescribed to individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to enhance neurotransmitter activity in brain regions linked to impulse control, such as the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia.
Opioids are a subset of depressants that include heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. These substances have analgesic (pain-relieving) properties by mimicking the body’s natural opioid neurotransmitters, binding to opioid receptors to reduce pain and induce euphoria. Because they closely resemble the body’s natural painkillers, opioids have a high potential for addiction.
Naturally derived opioids, known as opiates, come from the poppy plant. Heroin has historically been a major drug of abuse, but modern synthetic opioids also possess potent pain-relieving properties and are frequently misused.
Hallucinogens significantly alter sensory and perceptual experiences, sometimes causing vivid visual or sensory distortions. These substances can distort time perception and bodily sensations, such as feeling much larger or smaller than usual.
Different hallucinogens impact different neurotransmitter systems:
Unlike depressants and stimulants, hallucinogens generally have a lower potential for addiction.
Addiction is closely linked to the dopamine system, particularly in the nucleus accumbens, the brain’s primary pleasure center.
Physical dependence occurs when prolonged drug use leads to changes in normal bodily functions, causing withdrawal symptoms when the substance is discontinued. Psychological dependence, on the other hand, involves an emotional craving for the drug.
Tolerance develops when an individual needs increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect. This can drive users to consume dangerously high doses, increasing the risk of overdose and death.
Withdrawal symptoms often produce effects opposite to those of the drug itself. For example, withdrawal from sedatives can result in agitation and heightened arousal.
| Type of Drug | Examples | Effects on the Body | Neurotransmitter Pathway Disrupted |
|---|---|---|---|
| Depressants | Alcohol, Benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium), Barbiturates | Slow brain activity, decrease heart rate and respiration, induce relaxation, impair coordination, memory, and judgment. | GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid) - Increases inhibitory signals. Glutamate - Decreases excitatory signals. |
| Stimulants | Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Nicotine, Caffeine | Increase alertness, elevate heart rate, energy, reduce appetite, risk of heart attack/stroke. | Dopamine - Increases release and blocks reuptake. Norepinephrine - Increases release. |
| Opioids (Narcotics) | Heroin, Prescription painkillers (e.g., Oxycodone, Morphine), Fentanyl | Pain relief, euphoria, respiratory depression, risk of overdose, constipation, drowsiness. | Endorphins and Enkephalins - Bind to opioid receptors, reducing pain and inducing euphoria. |
| Hallucinogens | LSD, Psilocybin (“magic mushrooms”), PCP, MDMA (Ecstasy) | Alter perception, cause hallucinations, distort sensory experiences, increase heart rate, anxiety, paranoia. | Serotonin - Disrupts serotonin pathways, leading to altered perception and mood. Dopamine - In some cases, stimulates dopamine release, causing euphoria and altered perception. |
| Cannabis | Marijuana, Hashish | Relaxation, altered perception, euphoria, increased appetite, impaired memory and concentration. | THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) - Activates Cannabinoid receptors, affecting serotonin, dopamine, and GABA systems. |
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