Individual retirement accounts (IRAs) allow investors to save for retirement outside of employer-sponsored plans. We’ll discuss these two types in this chapter:
Traditional IRAs are non-qualified retirement plans because they’re not workplace-sponsored, although they function similarly to qualified plans. Like most qualified plans, contributions are deductible against earned income. For example, an investor making $50,000 contributing $4,000 to a traditional IRA is only taxed on $46,000 of earned income. Distributions are typically fully taxable as ordinary income.
The contribution limit for IRAs in 2025 is the lesser of $7,000 or the amount of earned income during the year. To contribute, investors must have earned income. A contribution cannot be made if an investor has no reportable earned income. For example, a person unemployed throughout the year is ineligible to make an IRA contribution. If they make less than the contribution limit, they can only contribute up to that amount. For example, a person earning $3,000 from a part-time job throughout the year can only contribute a maximum of $3,000 to their IRA.
Investors may make IRA contributions annually up to the contribution limit. Additionally, investors may contribute towards a specific year’s contribution limit until the tax-filing deadline the following year (typically April 15th). For example, an investor can contribute towards 2023’s contribution limit until April 15th, 2024. Contributions made between January 1st, 2024 and April 15th, 2024 must be specifically assigned* to 2023 or 2024.
*Assume an investor makes their first-ever IRA contribution on February 1st, 2024. They must determine if the contribution will count towards 2023’s $6,500 limit or 2024’s $7,000 limit (contribution limits increased by $500 in 2024). In most circumstances, it’s better to contribute to the previous year’s limit until it is reached.
As discussed above, only individuals with earned income may contribute to IRAs. However, the IRS allows working spouses to contribute to a non-working spouse’s IRA. For example, assume Jane works and is married to John, who is unemployed. Although he has no reportable income, Jane can contribute to John’s IRA on his behalf. This is referred to as a 'spousal IRA contribution. Regardless of the name, the accounts are separate - there is no such thing as a joint IRA.
Investors age 50 or older are eligible for a “catch-up” provision, which allows an additional contribution of $1,000 per year. It allows investors who missed contributions in their younger years to build their retirement accounts up faster. In 2025, a person age 50 or older may contribute up to $8,000 ($7,000 + $1,000 catch-up).
Traditional IRA contributions are not always deductible. Three potential situations determine the tax status of a contribution:
Investor is not covered by a qualified workplace plan
Investor is covered by a qualified workplace plan and low income
Investor is covered by a qualified workplace plan and high income
Covered by a qualified workplace plan means the investor can access a qualified retirement plan through their work. For example, an investor working at a corporation that can contribute to a 401(k) is covered by a qualified plan.
As you can see, if an investor has no access to a qualified workplace plan like a 401(k), they can always deduct their contributions. If they have access to a qualified workplace plan, the tax status of their deduction depends on their income level. The higher the income, the less likely the customer can deduct their contributions. You won’t need to know specific numbers, but you may encounter test questions on the general concept.
Investors making non-deductible contributions to a traditional IRA are only taxed on the growth when a distribution (withdrawal) is taken. The basis (amount contributed) returns to the investor tax-free upon withdrawal.
When retiring or quitting a job with a qualified plan, many investors roll their retirement plan assets into IRAs. When money is rolled from one retirement plan to another, it is not a tax-reportable event (no taxes due). Moving retirement assets to an IRA allows the investor to keep their assets tax-sheltered and provides additional investment options. Most qualified plans place limitations on the types of investments they allow. IRAs are only prohibited from short sales*, margin, and some option strategies** with unlimited risk potential.
*A short sale involves the sale of borrowed securities, typically as a means of betting against that security.
**In particular, an investor cannot sell uncovered (naked) options due to the significant amount of risk involved.
Roth IRAs are a newer retirement account created in the 1990s. Named after Senator William Roth, this type of IRA provides a “reverse” tax status when compared to typical retirement plans.
Contributions are made after-tax, which means they are not deductible. Roth IRA assets grow tax-sheltered and can be withdrawn in retirement tax-free if meeting specific requirements.
Although contributions are not deductible, there are contribution limits. The same traditional IRA contribution limit of $7,000 per year applies to Roth IRAs. Also, the contribution limit is for both IRA types combined. If an investor contributes $3,000 to their traditional IRA, they may only contribute $4,000 to their Roth IRA. If the account owner was age 50 or older, they could contribute an additional $1,000.
Not all investors are eligible to contribute to Roth IRAs. In particular, investors with high incomes cannot contribute. You won’t need to know the specific numbers for the exam, but we’ll disclose them below (if you’re curious).
Roth IRA owners taking distributions must meet two requirements to avoid taxes. First, the account owner must be at least 59 ½ years old, a standard retirement plan rule (otherwise, a 10% early withdrawal penalty is assessed). Second, the account must be open for at least five years. An investor opening their first Roth IRA at age 60 must wait until age 65 for tax-free withdrawals. The five-year aging period* for Roth IRAs starts on the first day of the tax year (typically January 1st) of their first contribution.
*Investors taking distributions above age 59 1/2 but haven’t reached the five year aging period are subject to ordinary income taxes on the gains above basis, but not the 10% penalty. For example, assume a 60 year old opens their first Roth IRA and contributes $5,000. Two years later the account is worth $8,000, and the investor requests a full withdrawal. They will pay ordinary income taxes on the $3,000 of growth, but no additional 10% penalty.
We learned earlier that most retirement plans are subject to required minimum distributions (RMDs) when the account owner turns 73. Roth IRAs are not subject to RMDs. Taxes are not assessed when distributions occur; therefore, the IRS isn’t concerned about forcing investors to take distributions.
Many Americans die (hopefully at an old age) with balances in their IRAs. When this occurs, beneficiaries (those who inherit these accounts) must follow specific distribution protocols. Unfortunately, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) does not allow assets to remain in tax-sheltered accounts forever.
Distribution rules are divided into two different categories depending on the beneficiary:
There are many benefits to being married. One is the added flexibility when inheriting IRA assets from a spouse. This type of beneficiary has these options:
Claim the IRA as their own
This option allows the spousal beneficiary to roll the inherited assets into their own IRA. If the spousal beneficiary is below age 73, they are not required to take distributions. However, they may face the 10% early withdrawal penalty if they take a distribution before age 59 1/2.
Claim the assets into an inherited IRA
If the spousal beneficiary is below the age 59 1/2 and plans to take a distribution, claiming the assets into an inherited IRA is likely their best choice. The only downside is that inherited IRAs require distributions to take place. In particular, the spousal beneficiary can elect to take annual RMDs or distribute all assets within 10 years.
There are two types of non-spouse beneficiaries - eligible designated beneficiaries and designated beneficiaries. An eligible designated beneficiary is a minor child of the decedent (deceased IRA owner), a permanently disabled person, a chronically ill person, or a person not more than 10 years younger than the decedent. A designated beneficiary is anyone not meeting one of the previously mentioned attributes. This is the primary option for non-spousal beneficiaries, although distribution methods may vary depending on the type of beneficiary:
Claim the assets into an inherited IRA
This option is the same as we discussed above for spousal beneficiaries. Distributions are not subject to the 10% early withdrawal penalty, but distributions are required. Eligible designated beneficiaries can elect to take annual RMDs over their lifetime. Otherwise, either type of non-spouse beneficiary can elect to distribute all assets within 10 years.
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