Stress

The nature of stress

Many researchers have struggled to settle on a clear definition of stress. One approach has been to view stress as a demanding or threatening situation—such as having a high-stress job, facing crowded conditions, or enduring long commutes. These are called stimulus-based definitions because they describe stress as an external cause of certain reactions. A limitation of stimulus-based definitions is that individuals differ in how they perceive and respond to challenging events. For example, a diligent student who studies thoroughly may feel less stress during final exams than someone who is unprepared.

Another way to conceptualize stress emphasizes the physiological responses that arise when people encounter demanding or threatening conditions—labeling stress as a response-based definition. One well-known description from an endocrinologist defined stress as the body’s reaction to any demand, whether it is pleasant or unpleasant. However, response-based definitions can be problematic because certain bodily reactions (e.g., an increased heart rate) may occur for positive events as well, such as an unexpected raise or promotion.

A helpful way to define stress is to treat it as a process in which someone perceives and reacts to events they judge as overwhelming or harmful to their well-being. A key feature of this perspective is appraisal, meaning how we evaluate or interpret potentially difficult or threatening experiences (often called stressors). These appraisals influence our emotional and behavioral responses to the situations we face.

Two kinds of appraisals are especially significant:

• Primary appraisal: This is the initial judgment about how much potential harm or danger a stressor poses. A situation may be labeled a threat if one thinks it may cause harm or negative outcomes, or it may be viewed as a challenge if it seems to offer chances for growth or gain.
• Secondary appraisal: This occurs when the situation is seen as a threat. It involves assessing what coping strategies are available and how successful they might be.
• Self-efficacy—the belief in one’s ability to carry out a task—plays a large part in whether one sees a threat as devastating or manageable.

Different types of stressors

• Cataclysmic events: Large-scale disasters that are hard or impossible to predict (e.g., major conflicts, natural disasters, terror attacks).
• Personal events: Notable life changes like having a baby, beginning or ending a relationship, moving to a new home, getting or losing a job, or dealing with severe illness or loss of someone close.
• Daily stressors: Routine stresses faced regularly, such as dealing with slow traffic, managing finances, or keeping up with household chores.

Effects of stress on psychological functions

Sometimes stress can be beneficial and motivating, known as eustress (good stress). In moderate amounts, it can enhance performance, such as an athlete using pregame stress for energy, or a student feeling a helpful level of pressure before a test. When stress goes beyond this optimal level, it becomes distress, leading to exhaustion, burnout, and declining performance. If stress remains intense, it may harm overall health.

Stress outcomes / response to stressors

• Physiological: The fight-or-flight response is a common reaction to perceived threats, with the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system prompting the body to get ready for action. This involves a surge of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal glands, elevating heart rate, expanding pupils, and increasing respiration. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis also becomes active, releasing cortisol, often called the stress hormone. While cortisol assists in meeting immediate challenges, prolonged levels can weaken the immune system.

• Emotional: Persistent exposure to stressors can undermine overall well-being and may lead to conditions like PTSD, anxiety disorders, or depression.

• Behavioral: People handle stressful circumstances in various ways. Some face the issue head-on, whereas others avoid or numb distress through substances or excessive screen time.

Managing stress (e.g., exercise, relaxation, spirituality)

Social support is a major resource for handling stress and may come from individuals or groups (e.g., spiritual or special-interest communities). Exercise (both aerobic and anaerobic) is known to boost physical and mental health, making people more resilient under stress. Techniques like yoga, meditation, and relaxation are also broadly used to reduce stress. One approach, the relaxation response technique, combines relaxation and a mantra while sitting quietly, helping lower sympathetic arousal.

Another method, biofeedback, employs electronic tools to measure neuromuscular or autonomic activity and gives real-time visual or audio feedback. It allows people to develop ways to regulate normally involuntary processes and has been effective for issues such as tension headaches, high blood pressure, and phobias.