We encounter a wide range of environmental stimuli throughout our lives. These stimuli often induce physiological responses—such as an elevated heart rate, sweating, or a surge of anxiety. The ways in which we perceive and interpret these bodily reactions are shaped by psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors.
Emotion
An emotion is a subjective state commonly described as a feeling. It emerges from a blend of subjective experience, expression, cognitive appraisal, and physiological responses. These components can occur in various sequences or simultaneously. Typically, an emotion arises from a subjective (individual) experience, which may be sparked by an external or internal trigger.
Emotional expression involves the verbal and nonverbal ways we show emotion.
Cognitive appraisal is our evaluation of how a situation might affect us.
Emotions also feature physiological responses, including changes in heart rate or sweating.
While the words “emotion” and “mood” are sometimes used interchangeably, psychologists differentiate them.
Emotion is usually a more intense, short-lived affective state tied to a specific event.
Mood, however, lasts longer, is generally less intense, and may not be prompted by any distinct experience.
Universal emotions
Sadness
Fear
Happiness (short-term)/joy (more enduring)
Surprise
Anger
Disgust
Contempt
Adaptive role of emotion
The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that tasks are typically performed optimally with enough (but not excessive) emotional stimulation, manifesting as motivation rather than distress. Emotions also serve a survival function by influencing behavior in ways that can keep us safe.
Theories of emotion
The James-Lange theory of emotion posits that physiological arousal leads to emotions. For instance, experiencing a pounding heart rate when startled would then be interpreted as fear.
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion holds that physiological arousal and the emotional experience happen at the same time yet independently.
The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion proposes that physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal together form our emotional experience. Under this model, labeling our bodily responses in a particular context creates the specific emotion we feel.
Theories of emotion diagram comparing major psychological models
The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion/brain regions involved in emotion
Emotion and the autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system manages organ and gland function, split into sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) divisions:
Sympathetic activation releases epinephrine, heightens heart rate, and routes more blood to muscles.
Parasympathetic activation dominates in calmer states, enhancing **digestion **and reducing muscle blood flow.
Working with the limbic system and the reticular activating system (RAS), this network regulates the bodily side of emotional experiences.
Physiological markers of emotion (emotion signatures)
Distinct physiological responses accompany various emotions, such as an accelerated heart rate, elevated adrenaline levels, sweating, increased respiration, and changes in blood pressure.
Crying is commonly linked to sadness or other negative feelings, while emotions like anger or embarrassment can result in a red or flushed face due to increased blood flow.
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