Responding to the world

We encounter a wide range of environmental stimuli throughout our lives. These stimuli often trigger physiological responses - such as a faster heart rate, sweating, or a surge of anxiety. How you notice, interpret, and label these bodily reactions is shaped by psychological, sociocultural, and biological factors.

Emotion

An emotion is a subjective state commonly described as a feeling. It reflects a combination of subjective experience, expression, cognitive appraisal, and physiological responses. These components can happen in different orders or at the same time. Often, an emotion begins with a subjective (individual) experience that’s triggered by something external (in the environment) or internal (such as a thought or memory).

Emotional expression refers to the verbal and nonverbal ways we show emotion.

Cognitive appraisal is your evaluation of how a situation might affect you.

Emotions also include physiological responses, such as changes in heart rate or sweating.

Although people sometimes use the words “emotion” and “mood” interchangeably, psychologists distinguish between them.

Emotion is usually a more intense, short-lived affective state tied to a specific event.

Mood, however, lasts longer, is generally less intense, and may not be prompted by any distinct experience.

Three components of emotion

• Cognitive: Involves the interpretation or thought processes behind an emotion (e.g., worrying about a risky situation).
• Physiological: Encompasses bodily reactions, such as an accelerated heart rate and perspiration when nervous.
• Behavioral: Relates to outward signs of emotion, such as leg bouncing, pencil tapping, or pacing.

Universal emotions

• Sadness
• Fear
• Happiness (short-term)/joy (more enduring)
• Surprise
• Anger
• Disgust
• Contempt

Adaptive role of emotion

• The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that tasks are typically performed best with enough (but not excessive) emotional stimulation. At moderate levels, arousal tends to show up as motivation rather than distress. Emotions also serve a survival function by shaping behavior in ways that can help keep us safe.

Theories of emotion

• The James-Lange theory of emotion proposes that physiological arousal comes first and is then interpreted as an emotion. For example, if your heart pounds after a sudden noise, you might interpret that arousal as fear.
• The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion holds that physiological arousal and the emotional experience occur at the same time but independently.
• The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion proposes that physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal together create the emotional experience. In this model, you label your bodily responses based on the situation, and that label becomes the specific emotion you feel.

The role of biological processes in perceiving emotion/brain regions involved in emotion

The limbic system, associated with emotion and memory, includes the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.

• The hypothalamus helps activate the sympathetic nervous system during emotional responses.
• The thalamus relays sensory information to both the amygdala and higher brain areas.
• The amygdala processes emotional information, particularly linked to fear and anxiety.
• The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition; alterations here are linked to mood and anxiety disorders.

Emotion and the autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system controls organ and gland function. It has two divisions: sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).

• Sympathetic activation releases epinephrine, increases heart rate, and directs more blood to muscles.
• Parasympathetic activation is more active in calmer states, supporting digestion and reducing blood flow to muscles.

Working with the limbic system and the reticular activating system (RAS), this network helps regulate the bodily side of emotional experiences.

Physiological markers of emotion (emotion signatures)

Different emotions are associated with distinct physiological responses, such as a faster heart rate, higher adrenaline levels, sweating, increased respiration, and changes in blood pressure.

Crying is commonly linked to sadness or other negative feelings. Emotions such as anger or embarrassment can also cause a red or flushed face due to increased blood flow.