15. Surveying, construction, ethics and professional practice

Achievable FE Civil

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Surveying, construction, ethics and professional practice

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This chapter covers the following topics:

Surveying (latitudes and departures, earthwork formulas, area formulas)
CPM precedence relationships
Earned-Value analysis
Safety, ethics, and professional practice
Spreadsheet fundamentals

Surveying

Latitudes and departures

When you describe a line in surveying, it’s often helpful to break it into two perpendicular components:

Latitude (L): the projection of a line on the north-south axis.
Departure (D): the projection of a line on the east-west axis.

Given:

Line length = $l$
Bearing = $θ$

We compute the components using basic trigonometry:

$Latitude (L) = l cos θ$

$Departure (D) = l sin θ$

Example:

For a line of 100 m and bearing $θ = 4 5^{\circ}$ :

$L = 100 cos 4 5^{\circ} = 100 \times 0.7071 = 70.71 m$

$D = 100 sin 4 5^{\circ} = 100 \times 0.7071 = 70.71 m$

Earthwork formulas

Earthwork volume is commonly estimated from a series of cross-sections taken along a route.

Average end area method

If $A_{1}$ and $A_{2}$ are the areas of two cross-sections and $L$ is the distance between them:

$V = \frac{A _{1} + A _{2}}{2} \cdot L$

Prismoidal formula

If $A_{m}$ is the mid-area between $A_{1}$ and $A_{2}$ :

$V = \frac{L}{6} (A_{1} + 4 A_{m} + A_{2})$

Example:

Let:

$A_{1} = 20 m^{2}$
$A_{2} = 40 m^{2}$
$L = 10 m$

Then:

$V = \frac{20 + 40}{2} \cdot 10 = 30 \cdot 10 = 300 m^{3}$

Area formulas

These methods estimate area from field measurements (offsets/ordinates) or from coordinate data.

Trapezoidal rule

For evenly spaced offsets:

$A = \frac{d}{2} [h_{1} + 2 (h_{2} + h_{3} + \dots + h_{n - 1}) + h_{n}]$

Where:

$d$ = spacing between offsets
$h_{1}, h_{2}, ..., h_{n}$ = perpendicular ordinates

Simpson’s rule

For an even number of intervals:

$A = \frac{d}{3} [h_{1} + 4 (h_{2} + h_{4} + \dots) + 2 (h_{3} + h_{5} + \dots) + h_{n}]$

Coordinate method (Surveyor’s rule)

For a closed traverse with coordinates:

$(x_{1}, y_{1}), (x_{2}, y_{2}), ..., (x_{n}, y_{n})$

Area is:

$A = \frac{1}{2} i = 1 \sum n (x_{i} y_{i + 1} - x_{i + 1} y_{i})$

Where:

$(x_{n + 1}, y_{n + 1}) = (x_{1}, y_{1})$

Example:

Let the triangle have coordinates:

$(0, 0), (4, 0), (4, 3)$

Then:

$A = \frac{1}{2} ∣ 0 \cdot 0 + 4 \cdot 3 + 4 \cdot 0 - (0 \cdot 4 + 0 \cdot 4 + 3 \cdot 0) ∣$

$A = \frac{1}{2} ∣ 12 ∣ = 6 m^{2}$

CPM precedence relationships

In an Activity-on-Node (AON) network, precedence relationships describe how one activity depends on another.

Activity-on-Node Relationships:

Start-to-start: Start of B depends on the start of A
Finish-to-finish: Finish of B depends on the finish of A
Finish-to-start: Start of B depends on the finish of A

Please see the chart in detail in FE Handbook.

Nomenclature

These terms are used when you do the forward pass (early times) and backward pass (late times):

$ES$ = Early Start = Latest $EF$ of predecessors
$EF$ = Early Finish = $ES + D$
$L S$ = Late Start = $L F - D$
$L F$ = Late Finish = Earliest $L S$ of successors
$D$ = Duration
Float = $L S - ES = L F - EF$

Earned-value analysis

Earned-value analysis compares what you planned to do, what you actually did, and what it cost.

$BC W S$ = Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled (Planned)
$A C W P$ = Actual Cost of Work Performed (Actual)
$BC W P$ = Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (Earned)

Variances

Cost Variance (CV): $C V = BC W P - A C W P$
Schedule Variance (SV): $S V = BC W P - BC W S$

Indices

Cost Performance Index (CPI): $CP I = \frac{BC W P}{A C W P}$
Schedule Performance Index (SPI): $SP I = \frac{BC W P}{BC W S}$

Forecasting

BAC = Original project estimate (Budget at Completion)
Estimate to Complete (ETC): $ETC = \frac{B A C - BC W P}{CP I}$
Estimate at Completion (EAC): $E A C = A C W P + ETC$

Safety, ethics, and professional practice

Engineering ethics

Engineering ethics guides professional conduct so that engineering decisions prioritize public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers are expected to act with honesty, integrity, fairness, and competence in professional activities. Ethical practice also includes avoiding conflicts of interest, maintaining confidentiality, and performing services only within areas of competence. On the FE examination, ethics questions typically focus on professional judgment, public protection, and alignment with established codes of conduct.

NSPE code of ethics

The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics outlines widely used principles for engineering practice in the United States. Its primary canon requires engineers to hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public. The code also emphasizes competence, objectivity in public statements, faithful service to employers and clients, and avoidance of deceptive acts. While it is not statutory law, it is a common ethical benchmark referenced in FE and PE examinations.

Professional licensure

Professional licensure helps ensure engineers meet minimum standards of education, examination, and experience before practicing independently. After passing the FE examination and gaining qualifying experience, candidates may pursue Professional Engineer (PE) licensure through state regulatory boards. Licensure grants legal authority to sign and seal engineering documents and accept responsible charge of projects, protecting the public through accountability and verified competence.

Standard of care

The standard of care is the level of skill and diligence that a reasonably prudent engineer would use under similar circumstances. Engineers are not required to guarantee perfection; they are expected to perform consistently with accepted professional practice. Falling below this standard may lead to claims of negligence or professional malpractice. In legal proceedings, expert testimony is commonly used to evaluate whether the standard of care was met.

Professional liability

Professional liability can arise when an engineer’s actions or omissions cause harm due to negligence, breach of contract, or failure to meet professional standards. Consequences may include financial damages, disciplinary action, or loss of licensure. Engineers manage risk through quality assurance procedures, documentation, adherence to technical standards, and professional liability insurance. Liability concepts connect directly to ethical decision-making and responsible project management.

Workplace safety and OSHA

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) establishes and enforces workplace safety regulations in the United States. Engineers involved in design and construction incorporate hazard mitigation measures such as fall protection systems, confined space procedures, lockout/tagout protocols, and proper use of personal protective equipment (PPE). Safety planning often follows the hierarchy of controls, prioritizing elimination and engineering controls over administrative measures and PPE.

Contracts and project delivery

Engineering projects are governed by contracts that define scope of work, responsibilities, compensation, and allocation of risk. Common project delivery methods include design–bid–build, design–build, and construction management at risk. Contract types such as lump sum, unit price, and cost-plus determine payment structure and financial responsibility. Understanding contractual relationships supports liability management, compliance, and professional accountability.

Conflict of interest

A conflict of interest exists when personal, financial, or other interests could compromise professional judgment. Engineers disclose potential conflicts to employers or clients and avoid situations where impartiality could reasonably be questioned. Ethical practice requires transparency and prioritizing professional obligations over personal gain. Poor conflict management can lead to disciplinary action and professional consequences.

Whistleblowing and public protection

When engineers identify unsafe or unethical practices, they have a professional duty to take appropriate action to protect the public. This may involve reporting concerns internally to supervisors or, when necessary, externally to regulatory authorities. Whistleblowing should be based on factual evidence and documented concerns related to public safety. The duty to safeguard public welfare can override loyalty to an employer when serious hazards are present.

Sustainability and environmental responsibility

Engineers are increasingly expected to incorporate sustainable principles into design and decision-making. Sustainable engineering emphasizes resource conservation, pollution reduction, life-cycle cost analysis, and protection of ecological systems. Compliance with environmental regulations and consideration of long-term societal impacts are part of responsible engineering practice. Integrating sustainability supports both technical performance and environmental stewardship.

For detailed, please refer to the FE Handbook.

Spreadsheet fundamentals

A spreadsheet is built from a few core elements:

$Cell$ : Intersection of a column and row (e.g., $B 4$ )
$Range$ : Group of cells (e.g., $B 2 : B 10$ )
$Formula$ : Begins with $=$ and performs a calculation

Order of operations follows standard mathematics:

$PEMDAS: Parentheses \to Exponents \to Multiply/Divide \to Add/Subtract$

Basic arithmetic formulas

Addition: $= A 1 + B 1$

Subtraction: $= A 1 - B 1$

Multiplication: $= A 1 \times B 1$

Division: $= A 1/ B 1$

Exponent: $= A 1^{2}$

Parentheses: $= (A 1 + B 1) / C 1$

Common spreadsheet functions

Assume values are stored in $B 2 : B 11$ .

Sum:

$= S U M (B 2 : B 11)$

Average:

$= A V ER A GE (B 2 : B 11)$

Minimum / Maximum:

$= M I N (B 2 : B 11), = M A X (B 2 : B 11)$

Count (numbers only):

$= CO U NT (B 2 : B 11)$

Round to $n$ decimals:

$= RO U N D (B 2, n)$

Absolute value:

$= A BS (B 2)$

Engineering formulas in spreadsheets

$Percent Change:$

$Percent Change = \frac{New - Old}{Old}$

Spreadsheet format:

$= (N e w - Ol d) / Ol d$

$Mass Balance:$

$Mass Before = Mass After$

$V_{1} C_{1} + V_{2} C_{2} = V_{3} C_{3}$

Logical functions

$Basic IF statement:$

$= I F (A 1 > 10, "OK", "Check")$

$Engineering constraint example:$

$= I F (B 2 \geq 0, B 2, 0)$

Logical combinations:

$= I F (A N D (A 1 > 0, B 1 > 0), "Valid", "Invalid")$

$= I F (OR (A 1 = " Y ", B 1 = " Y "), "Yes", "No")$

Cell referencing

Relative reference

Example:

$= A 1$

When copied downward one row:

$= A 2$

Relative references change automatically with position.

Absolute reference

Absolute format:

$= $ A $1$

Copying does not change the reference.

Used when referencing constants such as unit conversions.

Example:

If $E 1 = 0.00144$ (conversion factor from gpm to MGD),

$C 2 = B 2 \times $ E $1$

Mixed reference

Lock column only:

$= $ A 1$

Lock row only:

$= A $1$

Used in two-dimensional tables.

Example (sensitivity table):

$= $ A 2 \times B $1$

Unit conversion example

Given:

$1 gpm = 0.00144 MGD$

Spreadsheet formula:

$C 2 = B 2 \times $ E $1$

Total:

$= S U M (C 2 : C 6)$

Common spreadsheet mistakes

Forgetting $$ sign$ in constants
Dividing by incorrect totals
Mixing units
Using COUNT instead of COUNTA

Next | 16. Wrapping up

Surveying, construction, ethics and professional practice

This chapter covers the following topics:

Surveying (latitudes and departures, earthwork formulas, area formulas)
CPM precedence relationships
Earned-Value analysis
Safety, ethics, and professional practice
Spreadsheet fundamentals

Surveying

Latitudes and departures

When you describe a line in surveying, it’s often helpful to break it into two perpendicular components:

Latitude (L): the projection of a line on the north-south axis.
Departure (D): the projection of a line on the east-west axis.

Given:

Line length = $l$
Bearing = $θ$

We compute the components using basic trigonometry:

$Latitude (L) = l cos θ$

$Departure (D) = l sin θ$

Example:

For a line of 100 m and bearing $θ = 4 5^{\circ}$ :

$L = 100 cos 4 5^{\circ} = 100 \times 0.7071 = 70.71 m$

$D = 100 sin 4 5^{\circ} = 100 \times 0.7071 = 70.71 m$

Earthwork formulas

Earthwork volume is commonly estimated from a series of cross-sections taken along a route.

Average end area method

If $A_{1}$ and $A_{2}$ are the areas of two cross-sections and $L$ is the distance between them:

$V = \frac{A _{1} + A _{2}}{2} \cdot L$

Prismoidal formula

If $A_{m}$ is the mid-area between $A_{1}$ and $A_{2}$ :

$V = \frac{L}{6} (A_{1} + 4 A_{m} + A_{2})$

Example:

Let:

$A_{1} = 20 m^{2}$
$A_{2} = 40 m^{2}$
$L = 10 m$

Then:

$V = \frac{20 + 40}{2} \cdot 10 = 30 \cdot 10 = 300 m^{3}$

Area formulas

These methods estimate area from field measurements (offsets/ordinates) or from coordinate data.

Trapezoidal rule

For evenly spaced offsets:

$A = \frac{d}{2} [h_{1} + 2 (h_{2} + h_{3} + \dots + h_{n - 1}) + h_{n}]$

Where:

$d$ = spacing between offsets
$h_{1}, h_{2}, ..., h_{n}$ = perpendicular ordinates

Simpson’s rule

For an even number of intervals:

$A = \frac{d}{3} [h_{1} + 4 (h_{2} + h_{4} + \dots) + 2 (h_{3} + h_{5} + \dots) + h_{n}]$

Coordinate method (Surveyor’s rule)

For a closed traverse with coordinates:

$(x_{1}, y_{1}), (x_{2}, y_{2}), ..., (x_{n}, y_{n})$

Area is:

$A = \frac{1}{2} i = 1 \sum n (x_{i} y_{i + 1} - x_{i + 1} y_{i})$

Where:

$(x_{n + 1}, y_{n + 1}) = (x_{1}, y_{1})$

Example:

Let the triangle have coordinates:

$(0, 0), (4, 0), (4, 3)$

Then:

$A = \frac{1}{2} ∣ 0 \cdot 0 + 4 \cdot 3 + 4 \cdot 0 - (0 \cdot 4 + 0 \cdot 4 + 3 \cdot 0) ∣$

$A = \frac{1}{2} ∣ 12 ∣ = 6 m^{2}$

CPM precedence relationships

In an Activity-on-Node (AON) network, precedence relationships describe how one activity depends on another.

Activity-on-Node Relationships:

Start-to-start: Start of B depends on the start of A
Finish-to-finish: Finish of B depends on the finish of A
Finish-to-start: Start of B depends on the finish of A

Please see the chart in detail in FE Handbook.

Nomenclature

These terms are used when you do the forward pass (early times) and backward pass (late times):

$ES$ = Early Start = Latest $EF$ of predecessors
$EF$ = Early Finish = $ES + D$
$L S$ = Late Start = $L F - D$
$L F$ = Late Finish = Earliest $L S$ of successors
$D$ = Duration
Float = $L S - ES = L F - EF$

Earned-value analysis

Earned-value analysis compares what you planned to do, what you actually did, and what it cost.

$BC W S$ = Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled (Planned)
$A C W P$ = Actual Cost of Work Performed (Actual)
$BC W P$ = Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (Earned)

Variances

Cost Variance (CV): $C V = BC W P - A C W P$
Schedule Variance (SV): $S V = BC W P - BC W S$

Indices

Cost Performance Index (CPI): $CP I = \frac{BC W P}{A C W P}$
Schedule Performance Index (SPI): $SP I = \frac{BC W P}{BC W S}$

Forecasting

BAC = Original project estimate (Budget at Completion)
Estimate to Complete (ETC): $ETC = \frac{B A C - BC W P}{CP I}$
Estimate at Completion (EAC): $E A C = A C W P + ETC$

Safety, ethics, and professional practice

Engineering ethics

NSPE code of ethics

Professional licensure

Standard of care

Professional liability

Workplace safety and OSHA

Contracts and project delivery

Conflict of interest

Whistleblowing and public protection

Sustainability and environmental responsibility

For detailed, please refer to the FE Handbook.

Spreadsheet fundamentals

A spreadsheet is built from a few core elements:

$Cell$ : Intersection of a column and row (e.g., $B 4$ )
$Range$ : Group of cells (e.g., $B 2 : B 10$ )
$Formula$ : Begins with $=$ and performs a calculation

Order of operations follows standard mathematics:

$PEMDAS: Parentheses \to Exponents \to Multiply/Divide \to Add/Subtract$

Basic arithmetic formulas

Addition: $= A 1 + B 1$

Subtraction: $= A 1 - B 1$

Multiplication: $= A 1 \times B 1$

Division: $= A 1/ B 1$

Exponent: $= A 1^{2}$

Parentheses: $= (A 1 + B 1) / C 1$

Common spreadsheet functions

Assume values are stored in $B 2 : B 11$ .

Sum:

$= S U M (B 2 : B 11)$

Average:

$= A V ER A GE (B 2 : B 11)$

Minimum / Maximum:

$= M I N (B 2 : B 11), = M A X (B 2 : B 11)$

Count (numbers only):

$= CO U NT (B 2 : B 11)$

Round to $n$ decimals:

$= RO U N D (B 2, n)$

Absolute value:

$= A BS (B 2)$

Engineering formulas in spreadsheets

$Percent Change:$

$Percent Change = \frac{New - Old}{Old}$

Spreadsheet format:

$= (N e w - Ol d) / Ol d$

$Mass Balance:$

$Mass Before = Mass After$

$V_{1} C_{1} + V_{2} C_{2} = V_{3} C_{3}$

Logical functions

$Basic IF statement:$

$= I F (A 1 > 10, "OK", "Check")$

$Engineering constraint example:$

$= I F (B 2 \geq 0, B 2, 0)$

Logical combinations:

$= I F (A N D (A 1 > 0, B 1 > 0), "Valid", "Invalid")$

$= I F (OR (A 1 = " Y ", B 1 = " Y "), "Yes", "No")$

Cell referencing

Relative reference

Example:

$= A 1$

When copied downward one row:

$= A 2$

Relative references change automatically with position.

Absolute reference

Absolute format:

$= $ A $1$

Copying does not change the reference.

Used when referencing constants such as unit conversions.

Example:

If $E 1 = 0.00144$ (conversion factor from gpm to MGD),

$C 2 = B 2 \times $ E $1$

Mixed reference

Lock column only:

$= $ A 1$

Lock row only:

$= A $1$

Used in two-dimensional tables.

Example (sensitivity table):

$= $ A 2 \times B $1$

Unit conversion example

Given:

$1 gpm = 0.00144 MGD$

Spreadsheet formula:

$C 2 = B 2 \times $ E $1$

Total:

$= S U M (C 2 : C 6)$

Common spreadsheet mistakes

Forgetting $$ sign$ in constants
Dividing by incorrect totals
Mixing units
Using COUNT instead of COUNTA

Achievable FE Civil

Our FE Civil course is currently in development and is a work-in-progress.