Discrimination

Discrimination refers to the negative actions taken against an individual solely because of their membership in a specific group. This behavior originates from holding negative beliefs—commonly expressed as prejudice—which involve biased thoughts and emotions directed exclusively toward people based on their group affiliation. Consequently, those who are targets of such biased attitudes are often treated poorly; for example, older adults might be deliberately excluded from social circles simply because of their age.

While prejudice involves the formation of biased opinions or judgments, discrimination is distinguished by its manifestation in concrete actions that target certain groups. These actions may be based on factors such as race, ethnicity, age, religion, health status, and other key categories. For example, discriminatory practices rooted in race or ethnicity have historically been evident in unjust housing policies like redlining or in hiring procedures that unfairly disadvantage specific groups.

Historically, overt forms of discrimination have been deeply ingrained in the history of the United States. In the late nineteenth century, it was not uncommon for business owners to display signs such as “Help Wanted: No Irish Need Apply,” and the longterm implementation of Jim Crow laws, marked by “Whites Only” signs, provides a stark example of explicit discrimination. Although such overt practices are widely condemned today, their legacy has left enduring social scars.

The various manifestations of discrimination are regarded as forms of oppression, and they are closely linked to the concept of privilege—the unearned benefits and advantages that individuals receive by virtue of belonging to a dominant group. In discussions about race, there is often a focus on White privilege, which denotes the societal advantages that benefit those who are or appear to be White. Although many recognize that non-White individuals encounter systemic disadvantages because of their skin color, few are initially willing to acknowledge the benefits they themselves experience from being part of the dominant group. This reluctance may stem from a perception that such recognition undermines personal achievements or induces guilt. It is important to understand that privilege exists as an institutional condition, independent of any individual’s conscious efforts.

The relationship between prejudice and discrimination is complex and multifaceted. They may overlap and interact in several ways, as in the following examples:

• Some individuals, referred to as unprejudiced nondiscriminators, are open-minded, tolerant, and accepting. Conversely, unprejudiced discriminators might inadvertently engage in discriminatory practices—for instance, by failing to consider women or gender nonconforming people for positions traditionally held by men—without actively endorsing sexist beliefs.
• There are also those classified as prejudiced nondiscriminators who hold racist beliefs yet do not manifest them through overt actions, as might be observed in a store owner who serves minority customers without consciously discriminating.
• Finally, prejudiced discriminators are those who actively express their negative attitudes through derogatory remarks or participate in hate crimes.

Furthermore, factors such as power, prestige, and class play significant roles in both individual and systemic discrimination. Those who wield power—typically policymakers, budget controllers, and legislators—often make decisions that favor their own group, sometimes even subconsciously. A contemporary example of this dynamic is found in the realm of criminal justice, particularly in the differential treatment of drug offenses. During the 1980s, crack cocaine emerged as an epidemic in impoverished urban areas, while cocaine was more commonly associated with wealthier individuals. Federal laws imposed severe sentencing disparities, such as a 10-year sentence for possession of 50 grams of crack versus the same punishment for 5,000 grams of cocaine, reflecting a staggering 1-to-100 ratio. This disparity starkly illustrated social inequities,** disproportionately impacting** marginalized communities. Later policies, including the 1994 Crime Bill, contributed to mass incarceration among Black and Hispanic populations, thereby perpetuating cycles of poverty and inequality. The eventual passage of the Fair Sentencing Act in 2010 reduced this disparity to a 1-to-18 ratio, indicating some progress in addressing these inequities.

Through these interconnected mechanisms—spanning the interplay between prejudice and discrimination, as well as the influence of institutional discrimination, privilege, power, prestige, and class—negative behaviors and systemic inequities continue to shape social dynamics and reinforce established hierarchies within society.