Variable annuities

Variable annuities are used to provide lifetime income in retirement. They allow unlimited contributions and can make payments that fluctuate until the annuitant dies. In that sense, an annuity can function like a self-created pension. You contribute money to the contract, and later you can choose to receive payments for life.

Contributions (sometimes called premium payments) can be made as periodic payments or as a lump sum. Variable annuities are generally considered non-qualified retirement plans*, so contributions are not tax-deductible (there’s no tax benefit just for contributing).

There are two general types of annuities - immediate and deferred. The difference is how long the annuity spends in the accumulation phase (the period when you’re contributing and building value).

*You should assume variable annuities are generally non-qualified, but it’s possible to roll over qualified funds into an annuity. That creates a qualified annuity. We’ll cover this below.

Immediate annuity

If someone reaches retirement with a large sum of money, they can convert that lump sum into lifetime payments without a long accumulation period. This is an immediate annuity: retirement income begins soon after the insurance company receives the lump sum.

If the contribution is made as one large payment, it may be called a single premium immediate annuity. For example, an investor deposits $1 million into an immediate variable annuity and begins receiving monthly payments starting at $2,500. Those payments then fluctuate based on the investment performance of the separate account (discussed below).

As with most financial choices, there are trade-offs.

Immediate annuity benefits

• Receive retirement income immediately
• Provides income for life
• No need for a lengthy accumulation phase build-up

Immediate annuity risks

• Typically requires a large lump sum to qualify
• The lump sum is generally inaccessible without significant fees once deposited*
• Low or negative return if death occurs earlier than expected**
• Likely subject to a substantial amount of up-front fees and/or sales charges

*The inaccessibility of the lump sum only becomes an issue if the investor needs more money than they’re receiving in their annuity payments.

**An annuity typically stops making payments once the account owner dies. For example, assume an investor deposits $1 million into an immediate annuity in return for average monthly payments starting at $2,500. If they were to pass away after one year, the investor would’ve only received roughly $30,000 in total payments ($2,500 x 12 months). Exchanging $1 million for $30,000 of payments obviously represents an incredible loss. This is one of the primary risks investors face with annuities.

Deferred annuities

Deferred annuities are designed to build value over time before income begins.

For example, assume an investor contributes $2,000 per month to a deferred variable annuity starting at age 40. By age 60, they would’ve contributed $480,000 ($2,000 x 12 months x 20 years). Because contributions are invested, the account value could grow beyond $480,000 - say, to $1 million.

In retirement, the investor may annuitize the contract, which means giving up control of the $1 million to the insurance company in exchange for monthly payments for life.

Deferred annuity benefits

• Longer accumulation period allows for higher growth potential of contributions
• Provides income for life if annuitized
• No need for a significant lump sum to qualify

Deferred annuity risks

• Assets may not grow as much, or may lose value, if investments perform poorly
• Income typically isn’t received for years or decades
• Low or negative return if death occurs earlier than expected (once annuitized*)
• Likely subject to a substantial amount of up-front fees and/or sales charges

*Deferred annuities are not required to be annuitized. We’ll learn more about this below.

Accumulation phase

Regardless of annuity type, there are two general phases:

• Accumulation phase
• Distribution phase

The accumulation phase is when money is contributed to the annuity and invested. This phase could last a day (immediate annuity) or several decades (deferred annuity).

Money contributed during the accumulation phase goes into a separate account. It’s called “separate” because it’s kept separate from the insurance company’s own assets and capital.

When a contribution goes into the separate account, the investor buys accumulation units. Like shares of stock, accumulation units are a way to measure the investor’s basis (the amount invested). Each new contribution buys additional accumulation units. In general, the more accumulation units an investor owns, the larger their investment in the separate account.

The investor controls the separate account and chooses how the money is invested. The available choices are typically diversified portfolios of stocks, bonds, and other investments that are very similar to mutual funds. The investor’s choices (especially the level of risk) have a major impact on returns.

Assets in the separate account grow tax-deferred, similar to other retirement plans. Dividends and capital gains aren’t taxed as they occur; taxes are generally owed only when distributions are taken (often in retirement). During the accumulation phase, income is typically reinvested.

Variable annuities also follow many retirement-plan-style rules. Investors generally must wait until age 59 ½ to withdraw funds without penalty; withdrawals before then are typically subject to a 10% penalty.

Variable annuities typically provide a death benefit that applies only during the accumulation phase. This benefit applies if the account owner dies before annuitizing the contract (before electing lifetime payments).

For example, assume a 30-year-old contributes $500 per month and plans to continue until age 60. They pass away unexpectedly at age 50 after contributing $120,000 over 20 years ($500 per month x 12 months x 20 years). The death benefit guarantees a payment to the listed beneficiary. Specifically, the beneficiary receives the greater of:

• The account owner’s basis, or
• The current account value

Continuing the example, assume the separate account performed poorly and the account value at death is $100,000. The beneficiary would receive $120,000 (the basis). The death benefit ensures that, if the owner dies before taking distributions, at least the original contributions are returned - even if investments performed poorly.

If investments performed well, the beneficiary receives the current account value. Using the same $120,000 basis, assume the account grew to $200,000. The beneficiary would receive $200,000.

Sidenote

M&E charges

In the first example above, the investor’s account value at death was $100,000 while their basis was $120,000. At death, the insurance company had to pay the $20,000 difference to the beneficiary. This added cost is known as mortality risk, which occurs when the account owner dies earlier than expected.

Another risk the insurance company faces is rising expenses. Running an insurance company can be costly, especially with unexpected claims, higher regulatory costs, and/or rising general business expenses. The risk that expenses rise beyond expectations is known as expense risk.

To compensate for these risks, insurance companies typically assess M&E (mortality & expense) charges. This charge typically averages around 1.25% annually.

Distribution phase

When an investor is ready to take money out of a variable annuity, they enter the distribution phase. Common choices include:

• Withdrawing the entire separate account value as a lump sum
• Taking random or systematic withdrawals (for example, requesting $2,000 per month until the account is exhausted)

When distributions are taken from a non-qualified annuity, only the growth is taxable. Contributions (basis) are made with after-tax dollars, so they aren’t taxed again.

Example: If an investor contributed $50,000 and the account grew to $75,000, only the $25,000 of growth is taxable as ordinary income.

If a lump sum or periodic withdrawal is taken from a deferred annuity*, the investor is not guaranteed income for life. If enough money is withdrawn, the separate account will eventually be depleted. Investors who are concerned about outliving their assets generally avoid these payout options.

*We are not discussing this option with an immediate annuity because immediate annuities are almost always annuitized (payments for life). Otherwise, an investor with a large lump sum would often be better off placing those funds in a brokerage account, investing what they didn’t need, and taking distributions as needed.

If an investor wants guaranteed income for life, they annuitize the contract. Annuitization means giving up ownership of the separate account in exchange for lifetime payments.

When an investor annuitizes, their accumulation units convert into a fixed number of annuity units. The value of those annuity units depends on the performance of the separate account, which directly affects future payouts.

Sidenote

Taxes at distribution

In this section, we’ve learned the following about non-qualified variable annuities:

• Growth is taxable as ordinary income when withdrawn
• Two primary methods of withdrawal:
  • Not annuitizing and withdrawing funds when needed
  • Annuitizing and receiving periodic payments until death

Let’s look a bit more closely at the tax rules that apply when distributions are taken.

If the account is not annuitized, IRS rules generally require that growth is distributed first. This is known as LIFO (last in, first out): taxable growth comes out before after-tax contributions.

Example: An investor contributes $50,000, and the account grows to $70,000 by the time of the first withdrawal. The investor requests a $25,000 distribution.

• Total growth in the account: $20,000
• Under LIFO, the first $20,000 withdrawn is taxable growth
• The remaining $5,000 is a tax-free return of basis

So, $20,000 is taxable as ordinary income, and $5,000 is not taxable.

If the account is annuitized, IRS rules tax each payment on a pro-rata basis. Each payment includes part tax-free basis and part taxable growth. This is sometimes described as taxation under an exclusion ratio.

Example: An investor receives a $1,000 annuity payment. It’s possible that $300 is taxable growth and $700 is a tax-free return of principal*.

*Don’t worry about the specifics or how to calculate each portion. The test is most likely to focus on generalities.

As with other retirement plans, variable annuities are subject to an early withdrawal penalty if a non-qualified distribution occurs prior to age 59 1/2.

Annuity payments are typically made monthly. The first payment is determined by the annuitization structure (discussed later in this section). After the first payment, future payments depend on the performance of the separate account.

When an investor annuitizes, they’re given an assumed interest rate (AIR). The AIR is a conservative estimate of the projected growth of the separate account.

The separate account’s performance is continually compared to the AIR. Assume the AIR is 3% (annualized):

• If the separate account performs better than 3%, the monthly payout increases.
• If the separate account performs worse than 3%, the monthly payout decreases.

This is why these annuities are considered “variable.”

There are three specific annuitization structures to know.

First, the investor can choose a life annuitization (also called straight life annuitization), which pays for life. After the investor dies, payments stop and the insurance company keeps the remaining assets in the separate account. Depending on how long the investor lives, the outcome may be favorable or unfavorable.

Assume an investor chooses a straight life annuity when their separate account is worth $200,000:

• If they die one month later after receiving one $1,000 payment, the insurance company keeps the remaining value (a large profit for the insurer).
• If they live much longer than expected and receive $450,000 of total payouts, the investor receives far more than the original $200,000.

Because the insurer must estimate how long payments will last, insurance companies often require medical history and/or a medical exam. That information is reviewed by an actuary, who estimates life expectancy. The insurer then sets payouts based on that estimate.

Those estimates can be wrong. If the investor lives longer than expected, the insurer must continue making payments. This is called longevity risk. It’s a risk to the insurance company, but it’s the guarantee the investor is buying. Pensions face this same risk.

Investors who want to reduce the risk of “dying too soon” under a straight life annuity can choose life with period certain. For example, with a 10-year period certain:

• Payments are guaranteed for life.
• If the investor dies within the first 10 years, payments continue to the beneficiary for the remainder of the 10-year period.

Because this structure reduces risk for the investor, it typically produces lower payouts than straight life.

Primarily used by married couples, there is also a joint with last survivor annuitization. This structure pays two account owners until both have died. After the first death, payments are typically reduced.

Definitions

Annuitant

A person who receives annuity payments (typically the original account owner)

Investors may also choose a unit refund annuitization. This structure pays for life, but “refunds” the beneficiary if the annuitant dies before receiving payments equal to their basis.

Example: An investor contributes $100,000, annuitizes, and then dies after receiving $70,000 in payments. The remaining $30,000 is paid to the beneficiary, either as a lump sum or on a schedule (depending on the contract).

Sidenote

Qualified annuities

You should expect the exam to primarily focus on non-qualified variable annuities. A good default assumption is that an annuity is non-qualified unless a question says otherwise. A non-qualified variable annuity allows unlimited non-deductible (after-tax) contributions and tax-deferred growth. At distribution, only the growth is taxable as ordinary income.

Sometimes you’ll see a question about a qualified annuity. A qualified annuity is funded with pre-tax money from another qualified plan.

Example: An investor contributes $100,000 to a 403(b) plan. At retirement, the account has grown to $150,000, and the investor rolls it into a variable annuity.

In this case, all future withdrawals are taxable as ordinary income. Unlike a non-qualified annuity (where only growth is taxable), distributions from a qualified annuity are fully taxable.

To be clear, if the investor takes a lump sum distribution of the $150,000 qualified annuity, ordinary income tax applies to the entire $150,000 (the $100,000 basis and the $50,000 of growth).

Like other qualified plans, qualified annuities are subject to required minimum distributions (RMDs) starting at age 73. Non-qualified annuities are not subject to RMDs.

Fixed annuities

Now that you understand a variable annuity, let’s briefly cover a fixed annuity. You shouldn’t expect many test questions on this product because it is not considered a security. That’s because the investor does not take investment-related risk (for example, market risk).

With a fixed annuity, contributions go into the insurance company’s general account (not a separate account controlled by the investor). The insurance company invests the funds and guarantees a (typically low) rate of return (for example, 3%).

Compared with a variable annuity, there are pros and cons.

• Pros: Money grows at a guaranteed rate, and the investor doesn’t have to manage investment-related risks like market risk or interest rate risk.
• Cons: Variable annuities may grow more over time (more risk, more return potential), and the fixed rate of return is especially exposed to inflation (purchasing power) risk. Any investment with a fixed return faces this risk: if prices rise faster than the guaranteed rate, purchasing power falls.