Improved psychological skills can enhance performance in competition, training, and practice. These techniques can also transfer to other areas of life, such as business, academics, and social interactions.
Just as physical, technical, and tactical skills can be taught, learned, and practiced, psychological skills also require consistent training to produce long-term behavioral change. The following sections introduce key psychological skills you can integrate into training to improve overall performance.
Several techniques can help athletes manage psychological processes through relaxation. Relaxation techniques are designed to:
These techniques are especially useful when you’re executing complex or new movements, performing under pressure, or needing deliberate focus.
One technique for increasing physiological and mental relaxation is diaphragmatic breathing, also called belly breathing. This method is a foundational stress-management strategy and often serves as a starting point for many other relaxation techniques. By directing attention to the breathing process, athletes can clear the mind and improve relaxation and concentration.
Athletes should practice deep, rhythmic breathing in a relaxed, natural manner. Physiologically, diaphragmatic breathing supports the neural mechanisms that regulate autonomic nervous system (ANS) balance. During deep inhalation, the lower ribs expand. During full exhalation, the stomach settles. This pattern activates the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which counters the body’s fight-or-flight response.
For practical application, keep cueing simple: take a slow nasal inhale followed by a relaxed exhale. Diaphragmatic breathing is a core relaxation skill that athletes can build on.
To reach an appropriate level of cognitive and somatic activation before performance, athletes may use progressive muscular relaxation (PMR).
PMR is a technique in which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated by controlling skeletal muscle tension. Athletes tense and relax various muscle groups, which helps them recognize the difference between tension and relaxation.
Each cycle involves maximally tensing a muscle for about 10-15 seconds, then intentionally relaxing that muscle completely before moving on to the next group. With practice, athletes gain better control over tension and can regulate activation levels for optimal performance.
Systematic desensitization (SD) teaches athletes how to replace a fear response to stress-inducing cues with a relaxation response.
Like stress inoculation training (SIT), systematic desensitization is an adaptive, learned replacement process. It is based on the principle of counter-conditioning, in which relaxation is paired with previously stress-inducing stimuli.
For example, a gymnast who suffered a serious injury on the balance beam may start by visualizing the beam in a relaxed setting. The gymnast then progresses to more complex scenarios before attempting the actual movement that previously caused fear.
Imagery is a cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in the mind. In sport, imagery ideally uses all the senses to create a realistic mental experience of athletic performance.
The technique works by mentally rehearsing movements and simulating visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory (taste) cues.
Research supports the effectiveness of imagery for enhancing sport skill execution. Many athletes report reviewing film or recordings of past performances using an external perspective. However, an internal perspective (seeing through their own eyes) is often more effective for skill execution.
After successfully visualizing a still object, athletes can progress by imagining movement. For example, a basketball player might imagine bouncing the ball and feeling it against their fingertips, which can support control and confidence.
One of the primary objectives of applied sport psychology is developing a psychological perspective that improves performance.
Self-efficacy is a situation-specific form of self-confidence. It is defined as the belief in one’s ability to perform a given task in a specific situation. Research suggests that self-efficacy is a better predictor of task execution than arousal or anxiety levels.
According to Bandura’s theory, a person’s self-efficacy derives from:
An athlete who is highly self-efficacious does not doubt their ability to succeed, even when faced with adversity.
A key technique for enhancing self-efficacy, focusing attention, regulating arousal levels, and reinforcing motivation is self-talk.
Self-talk is the internal dialogue athletes have with themselves. It functions as the “soundtrack” for behavior and performance.
Instructional self-talk can also improve focus by providing cues, such as “feet shoulder-width apart” or “keep your torso erect.”
While positive and motivational self-talk can enhance performance, too much self-talk can become distracting. The most effective self-talk is task-relevant, concise, and practiced consistently.
Many of the psychological concepts discussed in this chapter influence one another. One key concept is self-efficacy, which strongly affects the types of goals people set for themselves. Those with higher confidence and efficacy tend to envision, create, and pursue more challenging goals.
Goal setting is a structured process in which progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with a defined criterion of success. This increases the likelihood of perceived accomplishment.
For example, a swimmer’s goal may be to execute a technically correct stroke throughout a sanctioned distance, such as the 50m freestyle. Early on, the swimmer’s skill level may be low, which can make the task feel overwhelming and lead to frustration. However, physiological testing may indicate that the athlete has the necessary physical resources - such as high fast-twitch muscle fiber composition and superior muscular power - to excel in the event. If inefficient stroke mechanics are the limiting factor, the coach and athlete can break the skill into smaller, manageable components. This allows the athlete to build confidence and improve progressively.
Systematic goal setting enhances an athlete’s psychological development and performance, as it:
Types of goals:
Optimal goal setting requires understanding how biopsychosocial and behavioral factors affect training. A well-structured goal-setting program helps improve athletic performance by ensuring that goals are both attainable and challenging.
A complete understanding of sport psychology’s role in athletic performance is incomplete without exploring motor skill acquisition and learning. For coaches and athletes, the learning-performance distinction is essential.
Performance can be influenced by arousal, motivation, and external factors, while learning is more stable. Coaches must recognize that poor performance in practice does not always indicate poor learning.
Practice is essential for motor skill learning, but simply increasing repetitions is not enough to change behavior. Coaches must adjust practice structure and scheduling to optimize learning.
Whole vs. part practice:
For complex movements like the snatch, part practice may be useful. However, coaches should ensure proper task interrelatedness when reintegrating the components.
Types of part practice:
Progressive-part training helps reintegrate subcomponents effectively, supporting skill retention and motor efficiency.
Random vs. blocked practice:
Blocked practice often produces quicker short-term improvements, while random practice improves retention and prepares athletes for real-world variability.
Variable practice further refines skill learning by introducing modifications within a single practice session, helping athletes adapt to dynamic environments.
Observational learning:
Athletes can improve performance through action observation, where they watch videos, demonstrations, or peers performing a skill. Observational practice, when combined with physical execution, enhances learning and retention.
Explicit vs. guided discovery instructions:
Coaches should balance instruction styles based on the athlete’s experience, task complexity, and competition environment.
Feedback in motor learning:
Feedback plays a significant role in skill acquisition by giving athletes critical information about movement patterns.
Types of augmented feedback:
Feedback is most effective when it is timely, specific, and relevant. For example, an athlete practicing a jump squat may receive KP feedback about hip extension to improve execution.
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