Improved psychological skills can enhance performance on sporting courts and in training rooms and practice fields. These techniques can also transfer to other areas of life, such as business, academics, and social interactions.
Just as physical, technical, and tactical skills can be taught, learned, and practiced, psychological skills require consistent training to generate long-term behavioral change. The following sections introduce key psychological skills that can be integrated into training to improve overall performance.
Several techniques can help athletes manage their psychological processes through relaxation. Relaxation techniques are designed to:
These techniques are particularly important when executing complex or new movements, dealing with pressure situations, or needing deliberate focus.
One technique for achieving greater physiological and mental relaxation is diaphragmatic breathing, also known as belly breathing. This method is a foundational stress management strategy and serves as a precursor to many other relaxation techniques. By focusing attention on the breathing process, athletes can clear the mind and increase relaxation and concentration.
Athletes should practice deep, rhythmic breathing in a relaxed, natural manner. Physiologically, diaphragmatic breathing enhances the neural mechanisms that regulate autonomic nervous system (ANS) balance. During deep inhalation, the lower ribs expand, and on full exhalation, the stomach settles, activating the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which counters the body’s fight-or-flight response.
For practical application, cueing should remain simple: take a slow nasal inhale followed by a relaxed exhale. Diaphragmatic breathing is presented as a core relaxation skill for athletes to build upon.
To achieve an appropriate level of cognitive and somatic activation before performance, athletes may employ progressive muscular relaxation (PMR).
PMR is a technique in which psychological and physical arousal are self-regulated through the control of skeletal muscle tension. Athletes tense and relax various muscle groups, helping them become aware of the difference between tension and relaxation.
Each cycle involves maximally tensing a muscle for about 10–15 seconds, followed by an intentional attempt to relax that muscle completely before moving on to the next group. With practice, athletes develop greater control over tension, allowing them to regulate their activation levels for optimal performance.
Systematic desensitization (SD) teaches athletes how to replace a fear response to stress-inducing cues with a relaxation response.
Like stress inoculation training (SIT), systematic desensitization is an adaptive, learned replacement process. This is based on the principle of counter-conditioning, in which relaxation is paired with previously stress-inducing stimuli.
For example, a gymnast who suffered a serious injury on the balance beam may start by visualizing the beam in a relaxed setting, progressing to more complex scenarios before attempting the actual movement that previously caused fear.
Imagery is a cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in his or her mind. Ideally, for athletes, imagery uses all the senses to create a mental experience of athletic performance.
The technique works by mentally rehearsing movements, simulating visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory (taste) cues.
Research supports the effectiveness of imagery in enhancing sport skill execution. Many athletes report reviewing film or recordings of past performances, using an external perspective. However, an internal perspective (seeing through their own eyes) is often more effective for skill execution.
After successfully visualizing a still object, athletes can advance the skill by imagining movement. For example, a basketball player might imagine bouncing the ball and feeling it against their fingertips, enhancing control and confidence.
One of the primary objectives of applied sport psychology is generating a psychological perspective that improves performance.
Self-efficacy is a situation-specific form of self-confidence, defined as the belief in one’s ability to perform a given task in a specific situation. Research suggests that self-efficacy is a better predictor of task execution than arousal or anxiety levels.
According to Bandura’s theory, a person’s self-efficacy derives from:
An athlete who is highly self-efficacious does not doubt their ability to succeed, even when faced with adversity.
A key technique for enhancing self-efficacy, focusing attention, regulating arousal levels, and reinforcing motivation is self-talk.
Self-talk is the internal dialogue athletes have with themselves. It serves as the “sound track” for behavior and performance.
Instructional self-talk can also improve focus by providing cues, such as “feet shoulder-width apart” or “keep your torso erect.”
While positive and motivational self-talk can enhance performance, excessive self-talk may become distracting. The most effective self-talk is task-relevant, concise, and practiced consistently.
Many of the psychological concepts discussed in this chapter influence one another. One key concept is self-efficacy, which significantly impacts the types of goals people set for themselves. Those with higher confidence and efficacy tend to envision, create, and strive to accomplish more challenging goals.
Goal setting is a structured process in which progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with a defined criterion of success, increasing the likelihood of perceived accomplishment.
For example, a swimmer’s goal may be to execute a technically correct stroke throughout a sanctioned distance, such as the 50m freestyle. In the beginning, the swimmer’s skill level may be low, making the task feel overwhelming and leading to frustration. However, physiological testing may indicate that the athlete possesses the necessary physical resources—such as high fast-twitch muscle fiber composition and superior muscular power—to excel in the event. If inefficient stroke mechanics are the limiting factor, the coach and athlete can break the skill down into smaller, manageable components, allowing the athlete to build confidence and improve progressively.
Systematic goal setting enhances an athlete’s psychological development and performance, as it:
Types of goals:
Optimal goal setting requires knowledge of how biopsychosocial and behavioral factors affect training. A well-structured goal-setting program helps improve athletic performance by ensuring that goals are both attainable and challenging.
A complete understanding of sport psychology’s role in athletic performance is incomplete without exploring motor skill acquisition and learning. Understanding the learning-performance distinction is crucial for coaches and athletes.
While performance may be affected by arousal, motivation, and external factors, learning is more stable. Coaches must recognize that poor performance in practice does not always indicate poor learning.
Practice is essential for motor skill learning, but simply increasing repetitions is not enough to change behavior. Coaches must manipulate practice structure and schedule to optimize learning.
Whole vs. part practice:
For complex movements like the snatch, part practice may be useful, but coaches should ensure proper task interrelatedness when reintegrating the components.
Types of part practice:
Progressive-part training helps reintegrate subcomponents effectively, ensuring skill retention and motor efficiency.
Random vs. blocked practice:
While blocked practice may lead to quicker short-term improvements, random practice enhances retention and prepares athletes for real-world variability.
Variable practice further refines skill learning by introducing modifications within a single practice session, helping athletes adapt to dynamic environments.
Observational learning:
Athletes can improve performance through action observation, where they watch videos, demonstrations, or peers performing a skill. Observational practice, when combined with physical execution, enhances learning and retention.
Explicit vs. guided discovery instructions:
Coaches should balance instruction styles based on the athlete’s experience, task complexity, and competition environment.
Feedback in motor learning:
Feedback plays a significant role in skill acquisition, providing athletes with critical information about movement patterns.
Types of augmented feedback:
Effective feedback enhances learning when provided with timing, specificity, and relevance. For example, an athlete practicing a jump squat may receive KP feedback about hip extension to improve execution.
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