Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses and show the relationship between them. The test won’t ask you to name one. It asks whether a conjunction shows the right relationship (because where the sentence means although), whether a pair such as neither…nor is complete, and whether two sentences are joined correctly. The terms below are the ones those rules are stated in.
There are two kinds of clauses:
- Independent clauses
- Dependent clauses
An independent clause is also called a main clause. It contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought, so it can stand alone as a sentence.
A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) has a subject and a verb but begins with a word such as although, because, or when, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A group of words missing a subject or a verb is a phrase, not a clause.
Coordinating conjunctions
When two words or phrases are coordinate, it means they have the same grammatical status. Coordinating conjunctions connect coordinate words in sentences:
Example:
They grew tomatoes and cucumbers.
Here, the tomatoes and cucumbers have equal status grammatically, which means that we can reverse their order in the sentence without making any grammatical adjustments:
They grew cucumbers and tomatoes.
Coordinating conjunctions also connect grammatically identical clauses. Most of the time, these clauses are both main clauses, or full sentences.
The seven common coordinating conjunctions in English are most easily remembered as FANBOYS, an acronym that stands for:
- For - gives a reason
- And - adds information
- Nor - adds a negative option
- But - shows contrast
- Or - shows a choice
- Yet - shows contrast
- So - gives a result
When a FANBOYS conjunction is used to connect two main clauses, it is preceded by a comma:
It was raining when we arrived, so we waited to unpack the car.
We went shopping on Black Friday, and we got some really terrific deals.
Ishani took a bus, but the train would have been faster.
A comma alone cannot join two main clauses (It was raining, we waited is a comma splice); you need comma + FANBOYS to join them correctly. Joining them with no punctuation at all (It was raining we waited) is a run-on, also called a fused sentence.
However, when a FANBOYS conjunction joins a second verb that shares the first clause’s subject (no new subject after the conjunction), do not use a comma:
Tami had a cold but went to work anyway.
Adam baked a chocolate cake and iced it with peanut butter frosting.
In each of the above examples, the phrase after the conjunction lacks a subject, which means it is not a main clause. As a result, there is no comma preceding the conjunction.
Our team’s victory continued our winning streak and made us eligible for the finals.
This sentence is also a compound predicate—both verb phrases share the subject our team’s victory—so no comma precedes and.
Because is not one of the FANBOYS; it is a subordinating conjunction (see below). A clause that starts with because is a subordinate clause, so when it follows the main clause it usually takes no comma.
Lily took her car to the mechanic because it needed an oil change.
The elephants stampeded because a gunshot startled them.
The best way to decide if a FANBOYS conjunction needs a comma before it is to test whether both the phrase before it and the phrase after it are complete sentences. If they are, use a comma. If they are not, do not.
Practice question
In fifth grade, Georgina dreamed of a glamorous _____ she could not be relied on to complete her homework.
Choose the correct answer:
a. career but
b. career and
c. career, but
d. career, and
e. career, for
Correct answer:
The correct answer is
c.
Career, but is correct because comma + but correctly punctuates two main clauses that contrast with each other.
a. Career but is incorrect because two main clauses joined by but need a comma before the conjunction.
b. Career and is incorrect because and suggests an additive relationship rather than a contrasting one.
d. Career, and is incorrect because and is additive, not contrasting.
e. Career, for is incorrect because for means because, but the sentence needs a contrast.
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to link two grammatically equal elements (words, phrases, or clauses). Whatever follows the first word of the pair should match in form what follows the second. Correlative conjunctions balance sentences by creating parallel structure.
| as…as | both…and | either…or | neither…nor |
| not only…but also | no sooner…than | hardly…when | just as…so |
| if…then | whether…or |
Sometimes a sentence will omit also so that it reads not only…but. This is grammatically acceptable.
Examples:
Neither the bread pudding nor the double chocolate cake appealed to Clarisse.
Tony wanted not only to attend the concert but also to go to the football game.
No sooner had they sat down to dinner than the baby started crying.
Or not can often be omitted after whether because when there are only two choices, it’s implied:
Liza asked whether or not it was okay to skip the primer coat when she painted her bedroom.
Liza asked whether it was okay to skip the primer coat when she painted her bedroom.
As you can see, omitting or not does not affect the meaning because there are only two choices: skip the primer coat or do not skip it. Keep or not when it means “regardless of whether”: We will play whether or not it rains.
Keeping correlative pairs parallel (as in not only to attend… but also to go…) is covered in more depth in Agreement and parallel structure.
Practice question
Neither the coach or the players expected the game to go into overtime.
Which underlined part contains the error?
a. Neither
b. or
c. expected
d. overtime
e. No error
Correct answer:
The correct answer is b.
b. is correct. Neither pairs with nor, not or: Neither the coach nor the players expected…
a. is incorrect because neither correctly opens the pair; the error is its partner.
c. is incorrect because expected is in the past tense, which has the same form for a singular or a plural subject.
d. is incorrect because go into overtime is the standard idiom.
e. is incorrect because neither can’t pair with or.
Subordinating conjunctions
A clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction is a dependent (subordinate) clause.
Common subordinating conjunctions
| although/though | after | because | since |
| before | unless | whereas | wherever |
| when | while | until | if |
| once | as soon as | rather than | just as |
Note that words like after, before, and until can also work as prepositions (as in after breakfast), so not every phrase that begins with them is a clause—check for a subject and verb to be sure.
When a clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, it is no longer a main clause, and it is no longer a complete thought. When it comes first in the sentence, separate it from the main clause with a comma. When it follows the main clause, it usually takes no comma: Greg agreed to watch it again because his little brother asked.
Example:
Greg did not want to watch Terminator 3 for the fourth time in a week.
This is a complete sentence because it has a subject, Greg, and a verb, did (not) want, and it expresses a complete thought.
However, if we add a subordinating conjunction, it becomes a subordinate clause:
Although Greg did not want to watch Terminator 3 for the fourth time in a week
The addition of although makes the statement a fragment: it must be attached to a main clause.
Although Greg did not want to watch Terminator 3 for the fourth time in a week, he agreed to please his little brother.
Practice question
Because the forecast called for rain, the parade went ahead as planned, and the streets were packed by noon.
Which underlined part contains the error?
a. Because
b. went ahead
c. were
d. by noon
e. No error
Correct answer:
The correct answer is a.
a. is correct. The parade went ahead in spite of the forecast, so the conjunction must show contrast: Although the forecast called for rain. Because says the forecast caused the parade to go ahead.
b. is incorrect because went ahead as planned is idiomatic and in the past tense like the rest of the sentence.
c. is incorrect because were agrees with the plural streets.
d. is incorrect because by noon correctly tells when.
e. is incorrect because because shows the wrong relationship.