Tax considerations
Dividends
Some funds pay ongoing dividends to their shareholders, which represent the cash dividends received from equity securities (common and preferred stock) and/or interest received from debt securities. Income-based funds are most likely to pay ongoing dividends, while growth funds tend to pay little, if no dividends. Here are two real-world examples:
Franklin DynaTech Fund (Ticker: FKDNX)
- Invests in growth tech companies
- Rare for stocks in the fund’s portfolio to pay dividends
- Has not paid a dividend since 2001*
*Although this fund has not paid a dividend since 2001, it typically makes a capital gain distribution annually to shareholders. We will discuss capital gain distributions below.
Franklin High Yield Fund (Ticker: FVHIX)
- Invests in junk (high yield) bonds
- Bonds in the fund pay high coupon (interest) payments
- Fund distributes monthly dividend payments to investors
Bottom line - a fund must receive income to distribute dividends to shareholders. This occurs with funds invested in dividend-paying common stocks, preferred stocks, and debt securities. However, growth funds invested in companies that do not pay dividends will not pay dividends to shareholders -there’s no income to pay!
The tax rate paid on dividends is determined by an investor’s annual taxable income, which includes all of the following:
- Salary
- Wages
- Commissions
- Bonuses
- Royalties
The more income one makes, the higher the investor’s tax rate. Dividends can be qualified or non-qualified, which relates to how they’re taxed. Qualified dividends are taxable at lower rates than non-qualified dividends (discussed below). Here’s a breakdown:
Qualified dividend tax rates
- 0% (low income)
- 15% (moderate income)
- 20% (high income)
Test questions relating to tax brackets tend to be generalized as these brackets change annually. Regardless, here’s a table with the specifics for investors filing single and married filing jointly (for the tax year 2025):
| Tax Rate | Individuals | Married filing jointly |
|---|---|---|
| 0% | $0 - $48,350 | $0 - $96,700 |
| 15% | $48,350 – $533,400 | $96,700 – $600,050 |
| 20% | $533,400+ | $600,050+ |
Do not memorize the specifics; this chart is only for context.
For a cash dividend to be qualified, it must meet two general requirements imposed by the IRS:
- Distributed by a US corporation or qualified foreign corporation*
- The investor must meet a specific unhedged** holding period***
*To be considered a qualified foreign corporation, it must meet any one of the following requirements:
- Incorporated in a US possession (including territories like Puerto Rico)
- Subject to a US tax treaty
- The dividend-paying security trades on an established stock exchange (e.g. an American Depositary Receipt trading on the NYSE)
**Unhedged means unprotected. An unhedged position does not have any insurance or another related product that would prevent the investor from a loss.
***The holding periods established by the IRS are bizarre and unlikely to be tested (knowing a holding period requirement exists for a dividend to be qualified should suffice). For example, the holding period for common stock dividends requires the stock to be held for more than 60 days during the 121-day period that begins 60 days before the ex-dividend date.
The requirements listed above are checked against the underlying securities in the mutual fund to determine if a dividend is qualified. For example, let’s assume we’re discussing a value fund with only common stock in the portfolio. For a dividend paid to investors out of the fund to be qualified, the disbursement must originate from US or qualified foreign corporations, plus the fund must meet the IRS-specified holding period. If so, the dividend paid to the fund’s shareholders will be considered qualified.
If a dividend is not qualified, it will be taxed as a non-qualified (ordinary) dividend. The applicable tax rate equals the investor’s federal marginal income tax bracket. This is likely the tax you’re most aware of, as it typically represents the most significant obligation for a taxpayer. As of the tax year 2025, these are the income tax brackets for individuals and those filing jointly:
| Rate | Individuals | Married filing jointly |
|---|---|---|
| 10% | $0 | $0 |
| 12% | $11,926 | $23,851 |
| 22% | $48,476 | $96,951 |
| 24% | $103,351 | $206,701 |
| 32% | $197,301 | $394,601 |
| 35% | $250,526 | $501,051 |
| 37% | $626,351 | $751,601 |
Do not memorize these tax brackets; this chart is only for context.
The federal income tax rate an investor falls into determines the tax rate they pay on non-qualified dividends. Qualified dividends always result in a lower tax obligation. For example, let’s assume an individual making an annual salary of $50,000 receives a $100 dividend. If the dividend is qualified, they face a 15% tax rate (using the qualified dividend tax rate table above), resulting in a $15 tax obligation ($100 x 15%). If the dividend is non-qualified, they face a 22% tax rate (using the marginal income tax bracket table above), resulting in a $22 tax obligation. Obviously, investors prefer qualified dividends over non-qualified dividends.
Dividends paid out of certain funds are always considered non-qualified. For example, dividends paid out of mutual funds holding US government and/or corporate debt securities. If an investor held these bonds directly, they would pay a tax rate on the interest equal to their federal income tax bracket. The IRS treats the “pass-through” of this interest via a non-qualified mutual fund dividend* similarly.
*Income paid out of a mutual fund is always considered a dividend, regardless of the source income. For example, assume a bond fund receives interest from the bonds in its portfolio. When the interest is “passed through” to the fund’s shareholders, we call it a dividend.
Some dividend payments can be entirely tax-free (regardless of tax bracket). In particular, a municipal bond fund invests in debt securities that pay federally tax-free income. Additionally, the income could be entirely tax-free if the investor is a resident of the municipality. For example, an investor residing in California would receive tax-free dividends from the Putnam California Tax Exempt Income Fund* (Ticker: PCIYX).
*This fund invests primarily in California municipal bonds, which pay tax-exempt income to investors residing in California.
Capital gains
Capital gains occur when a security’s sales proceeds exceed its cost basis. When an investor purchases a security, the overall cost is reported to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) as the “basis.” Let’s assume an investor purchases shares of ABC Fund at a public offering price* (POP) of $50. Their reported cost basis would be $50 per share.
*Cost basis includes any transaction fees. Therefore a fund with a NAV of $49 and a sales charge of $1 would result in both a $50 POP and $50 cost basis. The same goes for stocks, bonds, or any other security. For example, a stock purchased for $75 with a $1 commission would result in a $76 cost basis.
The investor holds the ABC Fund shares for a while, then redeems the shares at $61 with a $1 redemption fee. The investor would report $60 in sales proceeds. Similar to cost basis, sales proceeds factors in transaction costs. The only difference is that transaction costs are subtracted from sales proceeds, but are added to the cost basis.
Let’s summarize what just occurred:
Cost basis = $50
Sales proceeds = $60
Total capital gain = $10
The $10 capital gain was realized when the security was sold. Had the shares been left unsold, the investor would have an unrealized capital gain (a.k.a. a gain “on paper”). The IRS only taxes investors once gains are realized, which is how uber-wealthy individuals like Jeff Bezos can get away with paying little-to-no federal taxes. While he’s worth more than $150 billion, most of his assets are tied up in Amazon stock. He only gets a tax bill when he sells shares!
At the end of each year, investors must net out their capital gains and losses to determine if they owe taxes. Let’s work through an example:
January 30th
- Sold ABC fund for $2,000 capital gain
March 15th
- Sold BCD fund for $5,000 capital gain
July 10th
- Sold CDE fund for $3,000 capital loss
If these three transactions were the only trades placed during the year, the investor ends up with a $4,000 net capital gain (gains are netted against losses). The investor must pay a tax on the net gain. Of course, the tax rate depends on whether the gains are long or short-term.
Long-term capital gains are made on securities held for longer than a year. An investor must hold an investment for one year and a day to be long-term. Long-term capital gains are taxed similarly to qualified dividends - at a rate of 0%, 15%, or 20% (review above for the details).
Short-term capital gains are made on securities held for one year or less. Short-term capital gains are taxed at the investor’s income tax bracket, which could be as high as 37% (similar to non-qualified dividends). Obviously, investors prefer long-term capital gains because they’re taxed at lower rates.
What happens if there’s a net capital loss for the year? Let’s use the same figures, but tweak the July 10th trade.
January 30th
- Sold ABC fund for $2,000 capital gain
March 15th
- Sold BCD fund for $5,000 capital gain
July 10th
- Sold CDE fund for $20,000 capital loss
The investor now ends with a $13,000 net capital loss. Losing money on an investment is never fun, but capital losses reduce taxes paid by investors. If an investor has a net capital loss for the year, they can deduct up to $3,000 of the capital loss against earned income that year. Assuming this investor made $100,000 from their job, they could deduct $3,000 to bring their taxable income to $97,000. The deduction results in a lower tax obligation.
In this example, $10,000 of the $13,000 net capital loss is leftover. Any leftover portion “rolls over” to the following year, which helps the investor avoid taxes on future gains. The investor could make $10,000 of capital gains next year and not pay any taxes (the rolled-over $10,000 capital loss offsets it).
Capital gain distributions
Technically, a fund investor can obtain two types of capital gains - the typical “buy low, sell high” capital gain, and a capital gain distribution. Fund managers are tasked with investing their clients’ money and sometimes even actively trade in the fund portfolios. When a fund manager sells a security and locks in a profit, they realize a capital gain.
Capital gains made within fund portfolios are often “passed through” to investors (we’ll learn why later in this chapter). If this occurs, the investor receives payment without selling their own fund shares. Additionally, they will pay tax on the capital gain. The tax status of the capital gain (long or short-term) is determined by how long the fund held the security before the sale. While funds can distribute short-term capital gains on any schedule, long-term capital gains may only be distributed once per calendar year.
Subchapter M
Subchapter M, also referred to as the “conduit rule,” allows funds to avoid taxation. This IRS rule requires funds to distribute at least 90% of their net investment income to shareholders to qualify. In reality, most funds distribute upwards of 98-99% of their investment income to shareholders by the end of the year. Funds that engage in Subchapter M are called regulated funds.
By doing so, the fund passes the taxation to shareholders, who are now subject to paying taxes on the income received. It may seem unfair, but it’s best for everyone. Remember, shareholders benefit when a fund performs well. If the fund is required to pay substantial taxes, the NAV of the fund will decline, causing the investor to lose value (taxes would be paid out of the fund’s assets).
Many investors will pay lower or no taxes on the income received. First, most investors will be in lower tax brackets than large funds. Additionally, some investors own mutual funds in their tax-sheltered retirement accounts. We’ll learn more about this in the retirement plans chapter. For now, it’s okay to assume investors do not pay taxes on returns in retirement accounts.
Tax forms
Dividends are reported on the tax form 1099-DIV annually. Brokerage firms send these forms to their customers and the IRS. The form details dividends received and their status (qualified or non-qualified). For a dividend to show up on a given year’s 1099-DIV form, it must be paid in that year. If a dividend were declared in 2023 but paid in 2024, it would be reported on 2024’s 1099-DIV form.
Similarly, interest received from debt securities is reported on tax form 1099-INT. Interest is reported on a given year’s tax forms only if it was received in that calendar year.
Capital gains are reported on form 1099-B (B stands for brokerage proceeds). Every year, brokerage firms report their customers’ capital gains and losses. If the investor has more gains than losses (net capital gain), they will owe taxes. As discussed above, a net capital loss can be used as a deduction.
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