This chapter is devoted to two key areas: warm-up and training for flexibility. While these two areas have often been linked, they serve distinctly different functions. A warm-up is designed to prepare an athlete for upcoming training or competition and can enhance performance while reducing the risk of injury. Flexibility training, on the other hand, aims to increase the range of motion (ROM) at a joint through various stretching methods. This chapter explores the factors influencing both warm-up and flexibility and presents protocols to enhance each area.
A warm-up is widely accepted as a necessary component of any training session or competition. Its purpose is to prepare the athlete mentally and physically. A well-structured warm-up can elicit numerous physiological responses that benefit subsequent performance. These responses include:
Increased muscle temperature, core temperature, and blood flow
Enhanced neural function and oxygen delivery
Faster muscle contraction and relaxation
Improved strength, power, and reaction time
Lowered joint and muscle resistance
Greater psychological readiness
Warm-ups are classified into temperature-related and non-temperature-related effects. Both contribute to improved performance when active warm-up techniques are used.
Components of a warm-up
An effective warm-up consists of:
General warm-up: Low-intensity activity (e.g., jogging, cycling) that increases heart rate and blood flow while reducing stiffness.
Specific warm-up: Movements that mirror the activity about to be performed, such as dynamic stretching or skill rehearsal.
A complete warm-up should:
Progressively increase intensity
Raise muscle and core temperature without causing fatigue
Last 10–20 minutes
End no more than 15 minutes before the main activity
Targeted and structured warm-ups
General and specific warm-ups are valid, but they can be optimized using a structured method. A well-known model is the RAMP protocol:
Raise: Increase body temperature, HR, blood flow
Activate and mobilize: Focus on movement patterns, dynamic stretching, and mobility work
Potentiate: Prepare for activity-specific demands with progressive intensity (e.g., sprints, jumps)
The RAMP approach enhances both short- and long-term performance while promoting athlete development. It can also be integrated into a training session rather than treated as a separate element.
Flexibility
Flexibility is the degree of movement that occurs at a joint, often measured as range of motion (ROM).
Static flexibility is the range of possible movement about a joint and surrounding muscles during a passive movement. It does not require voluntary muscular activity.
Dynamic flexibility refers to ROM during active movements and generally is greater than static ROM.
Dynamic flexibility is more sport-specific and important for athletic performance.
Static ROM alone does not guarantee normal movement patterns; flexibility must be understood in the context of sport.
Flexibility and performance
Optimal flexibility depends on the type of activity.
More flexibility is not always better—athletes must meet ROM demands for their sport or position.
Insufficient flexibility may lead to injury.
Excessive flexibility without control can also be risky.
Proper development of ROM should consider specific sport demands and movement patterns.
Factors affecting flexibility
1. Joint structure
Determines ROM.
Ball-and-socket joints (shoulder, hip) allow movement in all planes and have the greatest ROM.
Younger people and females tend to be more flexible.
Age-related decreases in flexibility may stem from inactivity or tissue degeneration.
Flexibility can be improved at any age with appropriate training.
3. Muscle and connective tissue
Muscles, tendons, ligaments, joint capsules, and skin can limit ROM.
Elasticity and plasticity of tissues affect stretchability.
Proper stretching can positively affect tissue extensibility, but chronic effects vary.
4. Stretch tolerance
The ability to tolerate discomfort during stretching affects perceived ROM.
A regular stretching program can increase tolerance and result in increased ROM.
5. Neural control
ROM is also controlled by the central and peripheral nervous system, not just structural elements.
Reflexive and conscious muscle activities play a role.
A key training goal is to facilitate greater ROM via neural adaptations.
6. Resistance training
Can improve flexibility if done properly, through full ROM and balanced strength between agonist and antagonist muscles.
Poorly designed programs (e.g. high resistance with limited ROM) may reduce flexibility.
7. Muscle bulk
Excess muscle mass (e.g. large biceps or delts) may impede joint movement.
Strength and conditioning coaches must consider the impact of hypertrophy on flexibility needs.
8. Activity level
Active people tend to be more flexible.
Activity alone doesn’t ensure flexibility unless ROM is addressed directly through stretching.
Frequency, duration, and intensity of stretching
Both static and PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) stretching can improve ROM.
Stretching effects are transient unless performed regularly.
Long-lasting gains require a dedicated flexibility program (e.g., 2x/week for 5+ weeks).
Static stretches:
15–30 seconds is optimal.
Stretches >30 seconds can be more effective but may have diminishing returns.
Perform at the point of mild discomfort—not pain.
Include full-body warm-up to increase muscle temp before stretching.
When should an athlete stretch?
Stretching is recommended:
After practice or competition (to take advantage of elevated temperature and reduce soreness).
As a separate session (if greater flexibility gains are needed).
Before sessions, but only after a general warm-up and when flexibility is a performance requirement.
Prolonged static holds (longer than 60 seconds per muscle) before power or
speed work can acutely reduce performance. A dynamic warm-up should be
used prior to these sessions, while longer static or proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching is best saved for post-training or
separate sessions.
Proprioceptors and stretching
Stretching activates two key sensory receptors:
Muscle spindles: Detect changes in muscle length and trigger contraction
Golgi tendon organs (GTOs): Detect tension and trigger relaxation
Slow, controlled stretching avoids activating the muscle spindle reflex while promoting GTO-mediated relaxation.
Types of stretching
Static stretch
Involves slowly holding a position for 15–30 seconds. It is easy to learn and generally safe, making it ideal for most athletes. Static stretching should not be painful and should not cause loss of ROM if performed properly.
Ballistic stretch
Uses bouncing movements that activate the stretch reflex. While effective for increasing ROM, it carries a higher risk of injury and should only be used with caution.
Dynamic stretch
Emphasizes sport-specific, movement-based stretching. Movements should be controlled and gradually increase ROM. Examples include walking lunges or sprint drills. Dynamic stretching is ideal for warm-ups and mimics the demands of the sport.
Each of these involves passive stretching with partner resistance and progressive movement into a deeper ROM through isometric or concentric muscle actions.
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