Resistance exercise has proven to be a safe and effective method of conditioning for individuals with various needs, goals, and abilities. Much of what we understand about resistance training comes from studying the acute and chronic responses of adult men, but research on children, women, and older populations has increased significantly.
Strength and conditioning professionals must understand age- and sex- related differences in body composition, muscular performance, and trainability when designing and evaluating resistance training programs. Major professional organizations support youth participation in resistance training when it is performed with appropriate instruction, gradual progression, and qualified supervision.
For this chapter, resistance exercise is defined as a specialized method of conditioning in which an individual works against a wide range of resistive loads to enhance health, fitness, and performance. This term differs from the sport of weightlifting, where individuals aim to lift maximal weight in competition, specifically in the clean and jerk and snatch exercises.
Key terms:
Muscular strength in this chapter is expressed in both absolute terms (total force in pounds or kilograms) and relative terms (strength ratio to body mass, fat-free mass, or muscle cross-sectional area).
Growth, development, and maturation are terms used to describe changes occurring in the body throughout life.
Puberty is a time of major changes, including the development of secondary sex characteristics and the transition into young adulthood. During puberty, significant changes occur in body composition and physical performance, which can vary greatly between individuals. Although not a formal stage of maturation, peak height velocity (PHV) represents a higher-risk period for injury. During this window, it is especially important to reinforce proper technique and progress training loads conservatively.
Rates of growth and development vary widely, making chronological age (age in months or years) an imperfect measure of maturity. Children do not grow at a constant rate, leading to substantial differences in physical development at the same age.
For example:
A better measure of development is biological age, which assesses skeletal age, somatic (physique) maturity, and sexual maturation. Two children of the same chronological age may have several years of biological age difference.
Stages of maturation:
Sexual maturation is often measured using Tanner’s five-stage scale, which evaluates secondary sex characteristics such as breast development in girls and genital and pubic hair growth in boys.
Skeletal age assessment uses X-rays to evaluate bone ossification. Peak height velocity (PHV), the fastest rate of growth during puberty, is another key indicator of maturity. Strength and conditioning professionals should recognize individual differences in maturation and tailor training programs accordingly.
Children experience steady muscle mass increases throughout development:
During puberty, hormonal changes, such as increased testosterone in boys and estrogen in girls, drive further development:
Bone formation occurs primarily in:
Growth cartilage is vulnerable to trauma and overuse injuries, especially during peak height velocity. Proper technique, progressive loading, and qualified coaching can help reduce this risk.
As muscle mass increases, muscular strength also rises. In both boys and girls, strength gains follow growth patterns similar to body mass:
Adolescents can achieve nearly 50% greater strength gains than children, particularly after peak height velocity.
Research supports resistance training as a safe and effective method for children when appropriately designed and supervised. Major sports medicine organizations endorse youth participation in resistance exercise.
Key considerations for youth training:
Most youth injuries are the result of poor technique or excessive loading, not from properly supervised resistance training. This highlights the importance of quality coaching, an emphasis on proper movement patterns, and a gradual approach to overload.
Early studies suggested that children’s resistance training potential was low, but this was due to short study durations and low training volumes. More recent evidence shows that:
Strength and conditioning professionals should recognize the impact of biological versus chronological age and structure programs to fit individual developmental needs.
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Research has clearly demonstrated that boys and girls can increase muscular strength beyond growth and maturation alone if training intensity and volume are adequate. Studies show that children as young as 5 years old can benefit from resistance training, and various training methods have proven effective.
Strength gains in youth:
The variability in strength gain can be influenced by:
Children who participate in resistance training programs may experience periods of detraining due to:
Detraining occurs when resistance training is reduced or stopped. The effects include:
Research suggests that frequent training sessions (2+ times per week) lead to better strength retention compared to once-per-week training.
Neural contributions:
While hypertrophy is unlikely in preadolescents, adolescents may experience greater difficulty increasing muscle mass due to low circulating levels of testosterone, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factor.
Hormonal changes in strength development:
Because of these hormonal differences, preadolescents rely more on neuromuscular improvements for strength gains, while adolescents may begin experiencing some hypertrophy due to hormonal influences.
Participating in youth resistance training programs offers numerous health and performance benefits, including:
Global data indicates a rise in childhood obesity, with about 16.9% of American youth (ages 2-19) classified as obese. Resistance training is beneficial for:
Even though resistance training does not affect genotypic maximum growth potential, it plays a positive role in maintaining lean mass and overall health during development.
Properly designed youth resistance training programs are relatively safe compared to other sports and activities. However, concerns include:
To minimize risks:
Research suggests that youth athletes who participate in preseason conditioning programs experience fewer injuries compared to those who do not.
An effective youth resistance training program should:
Key components of a safe youth resistance training program:
How can we reduce the risk of overuse injuries in youth?
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Assessing strength levels in youth is crucial for designing effective training programs. However, 1-repetition maximum (1RM) testing is not always practical in research or sport settings due to:
Alternative strength assessment methods:
While field-based measures can help assess performance, strength and conditioning professionals must ensure that technical proficiency is the priority in youth training.
Proper exercise technique is essential to prevent injury and improve performance. Poor form can put abnormal stress on the musculoskeletal system, leading to potential injuries.
Teaching proper technique:
Strength and conditioning professionals should regularly monitor technique to ensure proper movement execution and avoid cumulative fatigue from repetitive poor mechanics.
A summary of best practices for youth resistance training:
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