Thinking, problem-solving, judgments, decisions
Concepts, prototypes, and schemas
Humans organize large amounts of information using categories called concepts (groupings of related items, ideas, or events). Within a concept, you often have a prototype, which is the most typical or “best” example of that concept. For example, the prototype for the concept “bird” might be a robin rather than an ostrich. An ostrich is still a bird, but it’s less typical.
A schema is a mental framework you use to organize and interpret information. Schemas change as you learn new information, mainly through assimilation and accommodation.
- Assimilation fits new information into an existing schema without changing the schema (such as a child thinking a zebra is a horse because it resembles one).
- Accommodation changes an existing schema to incorporate new information that doesn’t fit (which expands or alters your mental models).
How do assimilation and accommodation differ in the way schemas change with new information?
Assimilation incorporates new information into existing schemas without changing them, while accommodation revises and alters schemas to fit new or conflicting information.
Problem-solving
To problem solve, your brain relies on executive function and creative thought.
Executive function includes planning, impulse control, critical thinking, and staying focused. These skills help you manage complex tasks, resist distractions, and work toward goals.
Creativity supports problem solving by generating new ideas. It often involves divergent thinking, where you explore multiple possible solutions. This contrasts with convergent thinking, where you narrow options down to a single correct answer. Creativity can be blocked by functional fixedness, which is the tendency to see familiar objects only in their usual roles. For example, using a shoelace as a belt requires you to move past the usual “shoelaces are for shoes” idea.
Problem-solving can be systematic (using algorithms) or faster but less reliable (using heuristics).
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that try all possible solutions until one works. They’re thorough, but they can take a lot of time.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that speed up decisions, but they increase the chance of errors. For example:
- Representativeness heuristic leads you to judge based on stereotypes or prior expectations (instead of statistics).
- Availability heuristic leads you to overestimate how likely an event is based on how easily examples come to mind (often because they’re vivid or recent). For example, after hearing news reports about plane crashes, you might overestimate how often they happen, even though statistics show the risk is low.
What is the difference between convergent and divergent thinking in problem-solving?
Convergent thinking narrows down to a single correct answer, whereas divergent thinking explores multiple alternatives and generates new ideas.
Cognitive influences and biases
Decision making is prone to errors and is influenced by:
- Mental set: Making decisions based on prior successful experiences. For example, you might stick with an old solution that worked before, even when a new approach would work better.
- Priming: Decisions influenced by related ideas.
- Framing: Making decisions based on how information is presented (or framed). For example, describing surgery success as “90% effective” versus “10% failure” can change acceptance rates even though the meaning is the same.
People also behave irrationally in predictable ways. Common cognitive biases include:
- Gambler’s fallacy: Falsely expecting a change after a streak of outcomes.
- Sunk-cost fallacy: Continuing to invest in something because of what you’ve already invested (like finishing an unenjoyable book just because you’ve read most of it).