2.5 Media

Achievable AP US Government

2. Political Participation

Our AP United States Government and Politics course is currently in development and is a work-in-progress.

Media

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Mass media

Mass media refers to any type of media that reaches a large audience. Therefore, mass media includes print newspapers and magazines, movies, radio, television, and new media, referring to digital media formats such as social media, podcasts, and streaming services, in addition to mobile apps. Social media and video networks are now the number 1 sources of news for Americans.

Functions of national media

Agenda Setting/Gatekeeper:

At times, what the media focuses on is what people talk about.
The media can influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover. This is the agenda-setting function. For example, if the media is covering crime, people might look at crime as a major issue, whether it actually is or not.
Priming: Priming is an extension of the agenda-setting function. The national media can influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering. For example, if there are many stories about national security issues, people will begin evaluating the president’s performance in that area.
Framing: Framing is about how the media presents a story. Conservative media and liberal media can cover the same story from a different perspective. For example, the government’s attempt to wiretap phones of suspected terrorists can be covered from a national security perspective or a civil rights violation perspective.
Watchdog: The media holds politicians accountable through investigations and exposes scandals and wrongdoing.

Investigative journalism

This is a type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power.
Examples of watchdog function:
1. The New York Times and Washington Post exposed the Watergate scandal in 1972, where President Nixon was involved in an operation to steal documents from an office at the Watergate building relating to an upcoming election.
2. During the 1988 presidential primaries. A local newspaper and the tabloids exposed a hopeful presidential candidate, Gary Hart, who had an extramarital affair and ended his candidacy.
Adversarial press refers to a confrontational relationship between the media and those in power. The media is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions. Critics argue that the adversarial press can lead to the media pursuing sensationalism as opposed to focusing on substance, and also contributes to increased cynicism among the public.
The downside of the watchdog function is a tendency of the media to look for negatives as opposed to positives. The media’s attempt to cover scandals and corruption could lead to increased skepticism by the public towards politics and also towards sensationalism. Moreover, focusing on negative and sensationalist stories is also due to the media companies seeking to make a profit and attract viewers and readers.

Scorekeeper/horse-race journalism:

The media likes to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign, and covers the strategies of a campaign more than the substance of policies. The media often focuses on polls, candidates’ strategies to move up in the polls, more so than the candidates’ positions and substance in a campaign. The media’s coverage of both primary and general elections largely focuses on the game of politics and who is winning and who is losing.

Restrictions on the press

Despite the media’s powers discussed above, there are limits to the media’s effect and power. See below for a list of examples of how the media’s power is limited:

Defamation: The media can be sued in court for hurting someone’s reputation. Defamation consists of both libel (written) and slander (spoken). Although the media is protected by the First Amendment right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, a public official can sue the media for defamation under two conditions. The media is liable for defamation if the information is false and the publisher knew that the information was false and published it with actual malice.
Prior Restraint: There are limits to the media’s publishing information that could be a threat to national security. Prior restraint refers to the government’s attempt to stop the publication of a story before it is published if the government discovers that the media has such information and is about to publish it. Such was the issue in the NYT v. U.S. case, where the court ruled that the government is able to exercise prior restraint if the publication leads to imminent harm.
Confidentiality of sources: Journalists have to talk to people and get sources for information. The source can tell the journalist whether the information divulged is on the record (the journalist can write about it and use their name), off the record (the journalist cannot say who the source is and they may not even use that information), or on background (the journalist can publish the information but not use the name of the source). At times, the government may want to know the name of the source for journalists. This could happen, perhaps in a criminal investigation. The journalist may refuse to give up the name of their source. In 2005, two reporters went to jail when they refused to divulge the name of their source, informing them about the name of a covert CIA agent involved in a damaging story against President Bush. There are shield laws that protect journalists from exposing their sources (several states have shield laws, but there is no federal shield law).
Unlike newspapers and magazines, TV and radio broadcasts are required to operate with a license. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for granting such licenses and renewing them. The 1996 Telecommunications Act deregulated radio station ownership. It used to be that a company could only own one AM station and one FM station in a given market. The 1996 law allows a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally. As a result, a few large companies now own most of the radio stations.
Equal Time Rule: A radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate.

Definitions

Adversarial press: The media that is skeptical of politicians and is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions
Agenda setter: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover.
Equal time rule: A rule dictating that a radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate
Framing: The way media presents a story to present a story in a conservative or liberal way
Gatekeeper: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long, by what they cover (same as an agenda setter)
Horse race journalism: The media’s tendency to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign
Investigative journalism: A type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power
Libel: Making false and defamatory written statements against someone
Mass media: Any type of media that reaches a mass audience
Off the record: The journalist can not write about the name of the source or its content in a story
On background: The journalist can publish the information, but not use the name of the source
On the record: The journalist can write about the name of the source and use the news source’s name in a story
Priming: The national media’s power to influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering
Prior restraint: The government’s ability to stop the publication of a news article before it is published
Shield laws: Laws protecting journalists from exposing their sources
Slander: Spoken words designed to make a false and defamatory statement against someone
Telecommunications Act of 1996: 1996 law allowing a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally
Watchdog: The media’s power to hold politicians accountable through investigations and exposing scandals and wrongdoing
Scorekeeper: The media’s focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign

Next | Wrapping up

Media

Mass media

Functions of national media

Agenda Setting/Gatekeeper:

At times, what the media focuses on is what people talk about.
The media can influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover. This is the agenda-setting function. For example, if the media is covering crime, people might look at crime as a major issue, whether it actually is or not.
Priming: Priming is an extension of the agenda-setting function. The national media can influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering. For example, if there are many stories about national security issues, people will begin evaluating the president’s performance in that area.
Framing: Framing is about how the media presents a story. Conservative media and liberal media can cover the same story from a different perspective. For example, the government’s attempt to wiretap phones of suspected terrorists can be covered from a national security perspective or a civil rights violation perspective.
Watchdog: The media holds politicians accountable through investigations and exposes scandals and wrongdoing.

Investigative journalism

This is a type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power.
Examples of watchdog function:
1. The New York Times and Washington Post exposed the Watergate scandal in 1972, where President Nixon was involved in an operation to steal documents from an office at the Watergate building relating to an upcoming election.
2. During the 1988 presidential primaries. A local newspaper and the tabloids exposed a hopeful presidential candidate, Gary Hart, who had an extramarital affair and ended his candidacy.
Adversarial press refers to a confrontational relationship between the media and those in power. The media is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions. Critics argue that the adversarial press can lead to the media pursuing sensationalism as opposed to focusing on substance, and also contributes to increased cynicism among the public.
The downside of the watchdog function is a tendency of the media to look for negatives as opposed to positives. The media’s attempt to cover scandals and corruption could lead to increased skepticism by the public towards politics and also towards sensationalism. Moreover, focusing on negative and sensationalist stories is also due to the media companies seeking to make a profit and attract viewers and readers.

Scorekeeper/horse-race journalism:

The media likes to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign, and covers the strategies of a campaign more than the substance of policies. The media often focuses on polls, candidates’ strategies to move up in the polls, more so than the candidates’ positions and substance in a campaign. The media’s coverage of both primary and general elections largely focuses on the game of politics and who is winning and who is losing.

Restrictions on the press

Despite the media’s powers discussed above, there are limits to the media’s effect and power. See below for a list of examples of how the media’s power is limited:

Defamation: The media can be sued in court for hurting someone’s reputation. Defamation consists of both libel (written) and slander (spoken). Although the media is protected by the First Amendment right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, a public official can sue the media for defamation under two conditions. The media is liable for defamation if the information is false and the publisher knew that the information was false and published it with actual malice.
Prior Restraint: There are limits to the media’s publishing information that could be a threat to national security. Prior restraint refers to the government’s attempt to stop the publication of a story before it is published if the government discovers that the media has such information and is about to publish it. Such was the issue in the NYT v. U.S. case, where the court ruled that the government is able to exercise prior restraint if the publication leads to imminent harm.
Confidentiality of sources: Journalists have to talk to people and get sources for information. The source can tell the journalist whether the information divulged is on the record (the journalist can write about it and use their name), off the record (the journalist cannot say who the source is and they may not even use that information), or on background (the journalist can publish the information but not use the name of the source). At times, the government may want to know the name of the source for journalists. This could happen, perhaps in a criminal investigation. The journalist may refuse to give up the name of their source. In 2005, two reporters went to jail when they refused to divulge the name of their source, informing them about the name of a covert CIA agent involved in a damaging story against President Bush. There are shield laws that protect journalists from exposing their sources (several states have shield laws, but there is no federal shield law).
Unlike newspapers and magazines, TV and radio broadcasts are required to operate with a license. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for granting such licenses and renewing them. The 1996 Telecommunications Act deregulated radio station ownership. It used to be that a company could only own one AM station and one FM station in a given market. The 1996 law allows a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally. As a result, a few large companies now own most of the radio stations.
Equal Time Rule: A radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate.

Definitions

Adversarial press: The media that is skeptical of politicians and is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions
Agenda setter: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover.
Equal time rule: A rule dictating that a radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate
Framing: The way media presents a story to present a story in a conservative or liberal way
Gatekeeper: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long, by what they cover (same as an agenda setter)
Horse race journalism: The media’s tendency to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign
Investigative journalism: A type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power
Libel: Making false and defamatory written statements against someone
Mass media: Any type of media that reaches a mass audience
Off the record: The journalist can not write about the name of the source or its content in a story
On background: The journalist can publish the information, but not use the name of the source
On the record: The journalist can write about the name of the source and use the news source’s name in a story
Priming: The national media’s power to influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering
Prior restraint: The government’s ability to stop the publication of a news article before it is published
Shield laws: Laws protecting journalists from exposing their sources
Slander: Spoken words designed to make a false and defamatory statement against someone
Telecommunications Act of 1996: 1996 law allowing a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally
Watchdog: The media’s power to hold politicians accountable through investigations and exposing scandals and wrongdoing
Scorekeeper: The media’s focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign

Achievable AP US Government

2. Political Participation

Our AP United States Government and Politics course is currently in development and is a work-in-progress.

Media

7 min read

Font

Discuss

Feedback

Mass media

Functions of national media

Agenda Setting/Gatekeeper:

At times, what the media focuses on is what people talk about.
The media can influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover. This is the agenda-setting function. For example, if the media is covering crime, people might look at crime as a major issue, whether it actually is or not.
Priming: Priming is an extension of the agenda-setting function. The national media can influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering. For example, if there are many stories about national security issues, people will begin evaluating the president’s performance in that area.
Framing: Framing is about how the media presents a story. Conservative media and liberal media can cover the same story from a different perspective. For example, the government’s attempt to wiretap phones of suspected terrorists can be covered from a national security perspective or a civil rights violation perspective.
Watchdog: The media holds politicians accountable through investigations and exposes scandals and wrongdoing.

Investigative journalism

This is a type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power.
Examples of watchdog function:
1. The New York Times and Washington Post exposed the Watergate scandal in 1972, where President Nixon was involved in an operation to steal documents from an office at the Watergate building relating to an upcoming election.
2. During the 1988 presidential primaries. A local newspaper and the tabloids exposed a hopeful presidential candidate, Gary Hart, who had an extramarital affair and ended his candidacy.
Adversarial press refers to a confrontational relationship between the media and those in power. The media is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions. Critics argue that the adversarial press can lead to the media pursuing sensationalism as opposed to focusing on substance, and also contributes to increased cynicism among the public.
The downside of the watchdog function is a tendency of the media to look for negatives as opposed to positives. The media’s attempt to cover scandals and corruption could lead to increased skepticism by the public towards politics and also towards sensationalism. Moreover, focusing on negative and sensationalist stories is also due to the media companies seeking to make a profit and attract viewers and readers.

Scorekeeper/horse-race journalism:

The media likes to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign, and covers the strategies of a campaign more than the substance of policies. The media often focuses on polls, candidates’ strategies to move up in the polls, more so than the candidates’ positions and substance in a campaign. The media’s coverage of both primary and general elections largely focuses on the game of politics and who is winning and who is losing.

Restrictions on the press

Despite the media’s powers discussed above, there are limits to the media’s effect and power. See below for a list of examples of how the media’s power is limited:

Defamation: The media can be sued in court for hurting someone’s reputation. Defamation consists of both libel (written) and slander (spoken). Although the media is protected by the First Amendment right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, a public official can sue the media for defamation under two conditions. The media is liable for defamation if the information is false and the publisher knew that the information was false and published it with actual malice.
Prior Restraint: There are limits to the media’s publishing information that could be a threat to national security. Prior restraint refers to the government’s attempt to stop the publication of a story before it is published if the government discovers that the media has such information and is about to publish it. Such was the issue in the NYT v. U.S. case, where the court ruled that the government is able to exercise prior restraint if the publication leads to imminent harm.
Confidentiality of sources: Journalists have to talk to people and get sources for information. The source can tell the journalist whether the information divulged is on the record (the journalist can write about it and use their name), off the record (the journalist cannot say who the source is and they may not even use that information), or on background (the journalist can publish the information but not use the name of the source). At times, the government may want to know the name of the source for journalists. This could happen, perhaps in a criminal investigation. The journalist may refuse to give up the name of their source. In 2005, two reporters went to jail when they refused to divulge the name of their source, informing them about the name of a covert CIA agent involved in a damaging story against President Bush. There are shield laws that protect journalists from exposing their sources (several states have shield laws, but there is no federal shield law).
Unlike newspapers and magazines, TV and radio broadcasts are required to operate with a license. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for granting such licenses and renewing them. The 1996 Telecommunications Act deregulated radio station ownership. It used to be that a company could only own one AM station and one FM station in a given market. The 1996 law allows a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally. As a result, a few large companies now own most of the radio stations.
Equal Time Rule: A radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate.

Definitions

Adversarial press: The media that is skeptical of politicians and is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions
Agenda setter: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover.
Equal time rule: A rule dictating that a radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate
Framing: The way media presents a story to present a story in a conservative or liberal way
Gatekeeper: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long, by what they cover (same as an agenda setter)
Horse race journalism: The media’s tendency to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign
Investigative journalism: A type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power
Libel: Making false and defamatory written statements against someone
Mass media: Any type of media that reaches a mass audience
Off the record: The journalist can not write about the name of the source or its content in a story
On background: The journalist can publish the information, but not use the name of the source
On the record: The journalist can write about the name of the source and use the news source’s name in a story
Priming: The national media’s power to influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering
Prior restraint: The government’s ability to stop the publication of a news article before it is published
Shield laws: Laws protecting journalists from exposing their sources
Slander: Spoken words designed to make a false and defamatory statement against someone
Telecommunications Act of 1996: 1996 law allowing a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally
Watchdog: The media’s power to hold politicians accountable through investigations and exposing scandals and wrongdoing
Scorekeeper: The media’s focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign

Next | Wrapping up

Media

Mass media

Functions of national media

Agenda Setting/Gatekeeper:

At times, what the media focuses on is what people talk about.
The media can influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover. This is the agenda-setting function. For example, if the media is covering crime, people might look at crime as a major issue, whether it actually is or not.
Priming: Priming is an extension of the agenda-setting function. The national media can influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering. For example, if there are many stories about national security issues, people will begin evaluating the president’s performance in that area.
Framing: Framing is about how the media presents a story. Conservative media and liberal media can cover the same story from a different perspective. For example, the government’s attempt to wiretap phones of suspected terrorists can be covered from a national security perspective or a civil rights violation perspective.
Watchdog: The media holds politicians accountable through investigations and exposes scandals and wrongdoing.

Investigative journalism

This is a type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power.
Examples of watchdog function:
1. The New York Times and Washington Post exposed the Watergate scandal in 1972, where President Nixon was involved in an operation to steal documents from an office at the Watergate building relating to an upcoming election.
2. During the 1988 presidential primaries. A local newspaper and the tabloids exposed a hopeful presidential candidate, Gary Hart, who had an extramarital affair and ended his candidacy.
Adversarial press refers to a confrontational relationship between the media and those in power. The media is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions. Critics argue that the adversarial press can lead to the media pursuing sensationalism as opposed to focusing on substance, and also contributes to increased cynicism among the public.
The downside of the watchdog function is a tendency of the media to look for negatives as opposed to positives. The media’s attempt to cover scandals and corruption could lead to increased skepticism by the public towards politics and also towards sensationalism. Moreover, focusing on negative and sensationalist stories is also due to the media companies seeking to make a profit and attract viewers and readers.

Scorekeeper/horse-race journalism:

The media likes to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign, and covers the strategies of a campaign more than the substance of policies. The media often focuses on polls, candidates’ strategies to move up in the polls, more so than the candidates’ positions and substance in a campaign. The media’s coverage of both primary and general elections largely focuses on the game of politics and who is winning and who is losing.

Restrictions on the press

Despite the media’s powers discussed above, there are limits to the media’s effect and power. See below for a list of examples of how the media’s power is limited:

Defamation: The media can be sued in court for hurting someone’s reputation. Defamation consists of both libel (written) and slander (spoken). Although the media is protected by the First Amendment right of freedom of speech and freedom of the press, a public official can sue the media for defamation under two conditions. The media is liable for defamation if the information is false and the publisher knew that the information was false and published it with actual malice.
Prior Restraint: There are limits to the media’s publishing information that could be a threat to national security. Prior restraint refers to the government’s attempt to stop the publication of a story before it is published if the government discovers that the media has such information and is about to publish it. Such was the issue in the NYT v. U.S. case, where the court ruled that the government is able to exercise prior restraint if the publication leads to imminent harm.
Confidentiality of sources: Journalists have to talk to people and get sources for information. The source can tell the journalist whether the information divulged is on the record (the journalist can write about it and use their name), off the record (the journalist cannot say who the source is and they may not even use that information), or on background (the journalist can publish the information but not use the name of the source). At times, the government may want to know the name of the source for journalists. This could happen, perhaps in a criminal investigation. The journalist may refuse to give up the name of their source. In 2005, two reporters went to jail when they refused to divulge the name of their source, informing them about the name of a covert CIA agent involved in a damaging story against President Bush. There are shield laws that protect journalists from exposing their sources (several states have shield laws, but there is no federal shield law).
Unlike newspapers and magazines, TV and radio broadcasts are required to operate with a license. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is responsible for granting such licenses and renewing them. The 1996 Telecommunications Act deregulated radio station ownership. It used to be that a company could only own one AM station and one FM station in a given market. The 1996 law allows a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally. As a result, a few large companies now own most of the radio stations.
Equal Time Rule: A radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate.

Definitions

Adversarial press: The media that is skeptical of politicians and is highly focused on exposing wrongdoing and holding politicians accountable for their actions
Agenda setter: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long by what they cover.
Equal time rule: A rule dictating that a radio or TV station selling time to a candidate must be willing to sell equal time to another candidate
Framing: The way media presents a story to present a story in a conservative or liberal way
Gatekeeper: The media’s power to influence what subjects become national political issues and for how long, by what they cover (same as an agenda setter)
Horse race journalism: The media’s tendency to focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign
Investigative journalism: A type of journalism where reporters research and make an attempt to expose corruption, wrongdoing, and criminal activities by those in power
Libel: Making false and defamatory written statements against someone
Mass media: Any type of media that reaches a mass audience
Off the record: The journalist can not write about the name of the source or its content in a story
On background: The journalist can publish the information, but not use the name of the source
On the record: The journalist can write about the name of the source and use the news source’s name in a story
Priming: The national media’s power to influence how we evaluate leaders by the issues that they are covering
Prior restraint: The government’s ability to stop the publication of a news article before it is published
Shield laws: Laws protecting journalists from exposing their sources
Slander: Spoken words designed to make a false and defamatory statement against someone
Telecommunications Act of 1996: 1996 law allowing a company to own as many as 8 radio or TV stations in a large market and unlimited nationally
Watchdog: The media’s power to hold politicians accountable through investigations and exposing scandals and wrongdoing
Scorekeeper: The media’s focus on who is winning and who is losing in a campaign